Notes
Introduction: All through the Town
Nikole Hannah-Jones, “It Was Never about Busing,” New York Times, July 12, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/opinion/sunday/it-was-never-about-busing.html.
Roy Pea, “Beyond Amplification: Using the Computer to Reorganize Mental Functioning,” Educational Psychologist 20, no. 4 (1985): 167–82.
Larry Cuban, Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology since 1920 (New York: Teachers College Press, 1986), 109.
Harsha Walia, Border and Rule: Global Migration, Capitalism, and the Rise of Racist Nationalism (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2021).
1. Round and Round: The Journey of the School Bus
W. E. B. Du Bois, “Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?,” Journal of Negro Education 4, no. 3 (1935): 328.
Jon N. Hale, “The Students as a Force for Social Change: The Mississippi Freedom Schools and Student Engagement,” Journal of African American History 96, no. 3 (2016): 325–47; Daniel Perlstein, “Teaching Freedom: SNCC and the Creation of the Mississippi Freedom Schools,” History of Education Quarterly 30, no. 3 (1990): 297; Russell Rickford, We Are an African People: Independent Education, Black Power, and the Radical Imagination (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016); Robert P. Robinson, “Until the Revolution: Analyzing the Politics, Pedagogy, and Curriculum of the Oakland Community School,” Espacio, Tiempo y Educación 7, no. 1 (2020): 181–203.
National Highway Transit Safety Administration, “NHTSA’s Unedited Summary of School Bus Report,” 2021, https://www.cde.ca.gov/ls/tn/or/nhtsa3702.asp.
Hack being shorthand for hackney, a type of carriage pulled by mules or horses.
Harlan Tull, “Transportation and School Busing—the School Bus, History of Pupil Transportation, Issues in Pupil Transportation,” https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2512/Transportation-School-Busing.html.
“Frank W. Cyr, ‘Father of the Yellow School Bus,’ Dies at the Age of 95,” https://www.tc.columbia.edu/articles/1995/august/frank-w-cyr-father-of-the-yellow-school-bus-dies-at-the/.
Minimum Standards for School Buses, National Conference on School Bus Standards, 1939.
Minimum Standards for School Buses, 37.
Minimum Standards for School Buses, 36.
Minimum Standards for School Buses, 23.
Notably, it is illegal to paint nonschool buses this particular color. It is both one of the most commonly identifiable vehicular colors and the most rare for personal vehicles.
Kristen Green, “Prince Edward County’s Long Shadow of Segregation,” The Atlantic (August 1, 2015), https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2015/08/segregation-prince-edward-county/400256/.
Rudy Chinchilla, “‘Like Eggs in a Carton’: Here’s Why Most School Buses Don’t Have Seat Belts,” NBC10 Philadelphia, February 13, 2020, https://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/news/local/like-eggs-in-a-carton-heres-why-most-school-buses-dont-have-seat-belts/2294864/.
“School Bus Fines by State,” AARP Driver Safety, https://www.aarpdriversafety.org/schoolbusfines.html.
Linda Brown Smith, “Interview with Linda Brown Smith,” video, Washington University, October 26, 1985, http://repository.wustl.edu/concern/videos/1n79h614g.
Cheryl Brown Henderson, Deborah Dandridge, John Edgar Tidwell, Darren Canady, and Vincent Omni, Recovering Untold Stories: An Enduring Legacy of the Brown v. Board of Education Decision (Lawrence: University of Kansas Libraries, 2018).
Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537, 16 S. Ct. 1138, 41 L. Ed. 256 (1896).
Brown Henderson et al., Recovering Untold Stories, 28.
Hannah-Jones, “It Was Never about Busing.”
Brown Henderson et al., Recovering Untold Stories, 66.
Brown Henderson et al., 86.
Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483, 74 S. Ct. 686, 98 L. Ed. 873 (1954).
Brown, 347 U.S. 483.
Brown v. Board of Education, 349 U.S. 294, 75 S. Ct. 753, 99 L. Ed. 1083 (1955).
Jeffrey A. Raffel, Historical Dictionary of School Segregation and Desegregation: The American Experience (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998).
President Eisnehower then ordered them to protect Black students’ rights and safety.
Green, “Prince Edward County’s Long Shadow.”
Jack Bass, “Oral History Interview with Jesse Helms,” Documenting the American South, March 8, 1974, https://docsouth.unc.edu/sohp/A-0124/menu.html.
Smith, interview.
Amy Stuart Wells, Both Sides Now: The Story of School Desegregation’s Graduates (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).
Elizabeth Gillespie McRae, Mothers of Massive Resistance: White Women and the Politics of White Supremacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020).
McRae, 237.
Bruce Gellerman, “‘It Was Like a War Zone’: Busing in Boston,” WBUR News, September 5, 2014, https://www.wbur.org/news/2014/09/05/boston-busing-anniversary.
“50th Anniversary of Berkeley’s Pioneering Busing Plan for School Integration: Berkeley Unified School District,” Berkeley Public Schools, August 26, 2019, https://www.berkeleyschools.net/2018/12/50th-anniversary-of-berkeleys-pioneering-busing-plan-for-school-integration/.
Kamala Harris, The Truths We Hold: An American Journey (New York: Penguin, 2021).
“General Education Provisions Act (GEPA): Overview and Issues,” https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R41119.html#_Toc256753016.
Rucker C. Johnson. Long-Run Impacts of School Desegregation and School Quality on Adult Attainments, publication w16664 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2011).
Rucker C. Johnson and Alexander Nazaryan, Children of the Dream: Why School Integration Works (New York: Basic Books, 2019).
Kamala Harris (@KamalaHarris), “Almost two decades after this landmark ruling,” Twitter, May 17, 2017, 2:08 p.m., https://twitter.com/KamalaHarris/status/864950669861687296.
Wells, Both Sides Now.
Karida L. Brown, “The ‘Hidden Injuries’ of School Desegregation: Cultural Trauma and Transforming African American Identities,” American Journal of Cultural Sociology 4, no. 2 (2016): 196–220; DeBerry, “For Some, School Integration Was More Tragedy than Fairy Tale,” NOLA, May 30, 2019, https://www.nola.com/opinions/article_82d5155e-78f4-5234-b03a-d5566c880c9d.html; Sam Turken, “Little Soldiers: Members of Norfolk 17 Discuss Their Experiences during School Integration,” WHRO, February 25, 2020, https://whro.org/news/local-news/7199-we-were-the-soldiers-two-members-of-norfolk-17-discuss-their-experiences-during-integration.
Cindy Long, “A Hidden History of Integration and the Shortage of Teachers of Color,” NEA, November 3, 2020, https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/hidden-history-integration-and-shortage-teachers-color.
Roslyn Arlin Mickelson, Stephen Samuel Smith, and Hawn Amy Nelson, Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow: School Desegregation and Resegregation in Charlotte (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Education Press, 2015).
Valerie Strauss, “What Black Students Who Were Bused Said about Their Experiences,” Washington Post, July 8, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2019/07/08/what-black-students-who-were-bused-said-about-their-experiences/.
Richard Rothstein, “For Public Schools, Segregation Then, Segregation Since,” Economic Policy Institute, August 27, 2013, https://www.epi.org/publication/unfinished-march-public-school-segregation/.
“A History of School Busing,” Weekend Edition Sunday, NPR, June 30, 2019, https://www.npr.org/2019/06/30/737393607/a-history-of-school-busing.
Du Bois, “Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?”
2. Move on Back: The Experience on a School Bus
There are few other qualitative studies of children’s experiences on the school bus. We do, however, acknowledge the influence of Ira W. Lit’s work on the framing of our study. See Lit, The Bus Kids: Children’s Experience with Voluntary Desegregation (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009).
In accordance with our research protocols, all student, school, and geographic names are pseudonyms in this chapter.
Ansley T. Erickson. “Building Inequality: The Spatial Organization of Schooling in Nashville, Tennessee after Brown,” Journal of Urban History 38, no. 2 (2012): 247–70.
Antero Garcia, Good Reception: Teens, Teachers, and Mobile Media in a Los Angeles High School (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2017).
Antero Garcia, Stephanie M. Robillard, Miroslav Suzara, and Jorge E. Garcia, “Bus Riding Leitmotifs: Making Multimodal Meaning with Elementary Youth on a Public School Bus,” English Teaching: Practice and Critique 20, no. 3 (2021): 398–412.
3. Beep, Beep, Beep: The Design of the School Bus
Galen Cranz, The Chair: Rethinking Culture, Body, and Design (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), 93.
Ira Shor, Critical Teaching and Everyday Life, 1st ed. (Boston: South End Press, 1980).
Elias Canetti, Crowds and Power (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1960), 394.
Carlo Perrotta and Ben Williamson, “The Social Life of Learning Analytics: Cluster Analysis and the ‘Performance’ of Algorithmic Education,” Learning, Media, and Technology 43, no. 1 (2018): 3–16.
Nick Srnicek, Platform Capitalism (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2017), 43.
Jose van Dijck, Thomas Poell, and Martijn de Waal, The Platform Society: Public Values in a Connective World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018).
Antero Garcia and T. Phil Nichols, “Digital Platforms Aren’t Mere Tools: They’re Complex Environments,” Phi Delta Kappan 102, no. 6 (2021): 14–19.
Phil Nichols and Antero Garcia, “Platform Studies in Education,” Harvard Education Review 92, no. 2 (2022): 209–30.
Antero Garcia and Roberto Santiago de Roock, “Civic Dimensions of Critical Digital Literacies: Towards an Abolitionist Lens,” Pedagogies: An International Journal 16, no. 2 (2021): 187–201.
Wells, Both Sides Now.
Craig Robertson, The Filing Cabinet: A Vertical History of Information (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2021).
4. Open and Shut: The Future(s) of the School Bus
Steven Higashide, Better Buses, Better Cities: How to Plan, Run, and Win the Fight for Effective Transit (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2019).
KPTV, “Portland Public Schools Cancel Bus Routes, Parents Left Scrambling,” KPTV, September, 21, 2021, https://keyt.com/cnn-regional/2021/09/21/portland-public-schools-cancel-bus-routes-parents-left-scrambling/.
Chinchilla, “Like Eggs in a Carton.”
Anya Kamenetz, “National Survey Finds Severe and Desperate School Bus Driver Shortage,” NPR, September 1, 2021, https://www.npr.org/sections/back-to-school-live-updates/2021/09/01/1032953269/national-survey-finds-severe-and-desperate-school-bus-driver-shortage.
Rebecca Bellan, “Zūm Wins $150M from San Francisco Schools to Modernize and Electrify Student Transport,” TechCrunch, July 29, 2021, https://social.techcrunch.com/2021/07/29/zum-wins-150m-from-san-francisco-schools-to-modernize-and-electrify-student-transport/.
In Jo Ann Mazarella, Making Your Busing Plan Work: A Guide to Desgregation (Burlingame, Calif.: Association of California Administrators, 1977), 2.
Morgan G. Ames, The Charisma Machine: The Life, Death, and Legacy of One Laptop per Child (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2019).