Notes

1. “Your book is a success financially as well as artistically,” declared Frank Wardlaw, University of Texas Press director, to Gilpin in 1969; by the end of August 1976, just under thirteen thousand copies of the book had sold (Wardlaw to Gilpin, November 4, 1969; Marc Reischman to Gilpin, November 3, 1976). For reviews, see S. Newman, “Book reviews,” Western Folklore 28, no. 4 (1969): 288–90; D. R. Harris, “The Enduring Navaho by Laura Gilpin,” Geographical Journal 136, no. 2 (1970): 282; F. J. Pakes, “The Enduring Navaho by Laura Gilpin,” Man 6, no. 2 (1971): 323; K. S. Halpern, “The Enduring Navaho by Laura Gilpin,” American Anthropologist, n.s., 74, no. 4 (1972): 993; J. Loughery, “The Enduring Navaho by Laura Gilpin,” Woman’s Art Journal 10, no. 2 (1989–90): 50–51; James C. Faris, “Laura Gilpin and the ‘Endearing’ Navajo,” History of Photography 21, no. 1 (1997): 60–66.

2. Monty Roessel, “Navajo Photography,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 20, no. 3 (1996): 83–91; Faris, “Laura Gilpin and the ‘Endearing’ Navajo”; James Faris, Navajo and Photography (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2003).

3. Stacy Marie Fuller, “Enduring Friendship: Laura Gilpin’s The Enduring Navaho as Family Album” (MA thesis, Texas Christian University, 2004); Martha Sandweiss, Laura Gilpin: An Enduring Grace (Fort Worth, Tex.: Amon Carter Museum of American Art, 1986); Judith Fryer Davidov, Women’s Camera Work: Self-Body/Other in American Visual Culture (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998); Jonathan Goldberg, Willa Cather and Others (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001); Sina Brush, Working with Laura Gilpin, Photographer (Albuquerque, N.M.: Tomboy Press, 2017).

4. Laura Gilpin to Sam Ahkeah, February 8, 1954, box 5, folder 26, Laura Gilpin Papers, Amon Carter Museum of American Art Archives, Fort Worth, Texas (hereafter cited as Gilpin Papers).

5. Many scholars have pointed to the contradictions that were inherent in early twentieth-century White advocacy of Indigenous sovereignty: the literary scholar Michael S. Begnal, for example, has observed that “such contradictions are at the heart of any analysis” of the left-wing art colonists of the period (“Modernist Mythologies: The Turquoise Trail Anthology and the Poets of Santa Fe,” Western American Literature 53, no. 2 [Summer 2018]: 183).

6. Wendy Kozol, “Miss Indian America: Regulatory Gazes and the Politics of Affiliation,” Feminist Studies 31, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 66.

7. Throughout this text, I use Anglo as well as White to characterize Anglo-American people who lived and worked in the Southwest. This echoes Gilpin’s period usage and acknowledges the complex cultural and racial politics of the region, including the racialization of Spanish-speaking people in the region during U.S. colonization.

8. For more on the Indian Reorganization Act, see Steve Pavlik, “Should Trees Have Legal Standing in Indian Country?,” Wicazo Sa Review 30, no. 1 (Spring 2015): 21.

9. Donald L. Fixico, Termination and Relocation: Federal Indian Policy, 1945–1960 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).

10. Ethelou Yazzie, ed., Navaho History Volume 1 (Chinle, Ariz.: Navaho Community College Press, 1971); R. W. Young, A Political History of the Navajo Tribe (Tsaile, Ariz.: Navajo Community College Press, 1978); K. Chamberlain, Under Sacred Ground: A History of Navajo Oil, 1922–1982 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000); Peter Iverson, Diné: A History of the Navajos (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002).

11. Quoted in Sandweiss, Enduring Grace, 97.

12. The theoretical challenge posed by “lesbian” history in a queer historical moment has been disarmingly articulated by Gregory Samantha Rosenthal in her book Living Queer History: Remembrance and Belonging in a Southern City (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021). See also Leila J. Rupp, “Thinking about ‘Lesbian History,’” in “Categorizing Sexualities,” special issue, Feminist Studies 39, no. 2 (2013): 357–61.

13. Phase box 18, Gilpin Papers.

14. Hilary N. Weaver, “Indigenous Identity: What Is It, and Who Really Has It?,” American Indian Quarterly 25, no. 2 (Spring 2001): 240–55; Cook-Lynn is quoted in Melanie K. Yazzie and Nick Estes, “Guest Editors’ Introduction: Essentializing Elizabeth Cook-Lynn,” Wicazo Sa Review 31, no. 1 (Spring 2016): 11. The political strategy of strategic essentialism was first named as such by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak in the 1980s.

15. Brush, Working with Laura Gilpin, 131.

16. This authority was reflected in Gilpin’s participation, in 1951, in the founding of Aperture—as well as her close friendships and professional relationships with more famous (male) photographers and curators.

17. A. Ralph Steiner to Gilpin, October 22, 1924, box 1, folder 21, Gilpin Papers.

18. Gilpin exhibited her photographs under multiple titles during her career. Image captions reflect the titles under which they are held in the collection of the Amon Carter Museum of American Art.

19. Cover, Bulletin of the Art Center, New York 2, no. 5 (January 1924); Frederick and Nelson to Laura Gilpin, October 19, 1925, box 1, folder 22, Gilpin Papers.

20. Mildred Adams, “A Worker in Light,” Woman Citizen 10, no. 12 (March 1926): 10–11.

21. Adams, “Worker in Light,” 11.

22. Beaumont Newhall, Photography: A Short Critical History, 2nd ed. (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1938).

23. Edward Weston, quoted in Beaumont and Nancy Newhall, Masters of Photography (New York: George Brazillier, 1958), 8.

24. Van Deren Coke, Photography in New Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1979), ix.

25. Coke, Photography in New Mexico, 32.

26. Lotz, quoted in “The Enduring Photographer Laura Gilpin,” Pasatiempo, June 23, 2017, https://www.pressreader.com/usa/pasatiempo/20170623/281530816025450.

27. Martha Sandweiss, “Laura Gilpin and the Tradition of American Landscape Photography,” originally published in The Desert Is No Lady: Southwestern Landscapes in Women’s Writing and Art, edited by Vera Norwood and Janice Monk, (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987), https://www.cla.purdue.edu/WAAW/Sandweiss/. Jackson photographed Mesa Verde in 1874, Gilpin in 1925.

28. For example, Will Wilson’s CIPX project and Marina Wilbur’s Project 562.

29. Adrian Oktenberg, “Review: A Vanishing World,” Women’s Review of Books 4, no. 3 (December 1986): 14.

30. There are several extant discussions about Gilpin’s decision to spell Navaho with an h rather than a j, beginning with conversations she had in the process of preparing her manuscript. University of Texas Press director Frank Wardlaw ruled in favor of the j, prompting Gilpin to follow her concession with a caveat to Spielman: “However, the ‘h’ is right and the Indian Service is wrong, and this isn’t the first time the service has been wrong about the Navaho people!” (Gilpin to Barbara Spielman, February 21, 1968, box 50, folder 13, Gilpin Papers). Diné and bilagáana authors alike used a variety of spellings over the twentieth century (and beyond).

31. Louise Siddons, “Whither Art? Laura Gilpin and Photography at the Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center,” in Rethinking Regionalism: 20th Century Art and Visual Culture in the American West (Colorado Springs: Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center at Colorado College, 2021), 143.

32. John Tagg, Grounds of Dispute: Art History, Cultural Politics, and the Discursive Field (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992); and Tagg, The Disciplinary Frame: Photographic Truths and the Capture of Meaning (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009).

33. See Abigail Solomon-Godeau, Photography after Photography: Gender, Genre, History (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2017); and Solomon-Godeau, Photography at the Dock: Essays on Photographic History, Institutions, and Practices (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991).

34. Laura Gilpin, The Enduring Navaho (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968), 56.

35. Larry McSwain, “Noted Photographer Compiles Navajo Book,” Gallup Independent, January 26, 1955.

36. Snow’s photographs of Navajo people and places are housed in the Navajo Nation Museum, Window Rock, Arizona. For a Diné perspective on Snow’s legacy, see William R. Wilson, “The Navajo Photography of Milton S. Snow: Photography and Federal Indian Policy, 1937–1959” (MFA thesis, University of New Mexico [Albuquerque], 2002). Post’s archive is at the Amon Carter Museum.

37. Roessel is the author and/or illustrator of Kinaaldá: A Navajo Girl Grows Up (Minneapolis: Lerner Publishing Group, 1993); and Songs from the Loom (Minneapolis: First Avenue Editions, 1995); and, with Peter Iverson, Diné: A History of the Navajos (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002).

38. The concept of survivance comes from the Anishinaabe scholar Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners: Narratives on Postindian Survivance (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), and elsewhere.

39. Jas M. Morgan, “Making Space in Indigenous Art for Bull Dykes and Gender Weirdos,” Canadian Art, April 20, 2017, https://canadianart.ca/essays/making-space-in-indigenous-art-for-bull-dykes-and-gender-weirdos/, last accessed August 24, 2022.

40. Roessel, “Navajo Photography.”

41. In the ongoing series Native Perspectives, for example, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York invites Indigenous artists to author the didactic material accompanying works on view in the galleries. Several participants—Veronica, Rock, and Wolf Pipestem and Crystal Echo-Hawk among them—subvert the colonial tendency to offer a biography of the famous White artist who depicts a Native subject, choosing instead to share the biography of the sitter. See https://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-met/collection-areas/the-american-wing/native-perspectives, last accessed August 22, 2022.

42. The challenges of biography and the archive have been elucidated in a very different context by Saidiya Hartman in her essay “Venus in Two Acts,” Small Axe 12, no. 2 (June 2008): 1–14.

43. Phillips and Berlo both have extensive publication records, but their collaboration on Native North American Art (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) created a canon and to a great extent established the field of Native American art history (which had predominantly been considered a subdiscipline of anthropology). Mithlo and Rickard both have similarly vast bodies of work, encompassing scholarship, curatorial work, and advocacy. Lippard is well-known for her feminist and eco-critical scholarship; in Partial Recall: Photographs of Native North Americans (New York: New Press, 1993), she brought together twelve Native artists and writers to address the titular theme. Other key texts that frame my thinking about Native American art are Philip J. Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004); Paul Chaat Smith, Everything You Know about Indians Is Wrong (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); Shari Huhndorf, Mapping the Americas: The Transnational Politics of Contemporary Native Culture (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2009); Allan J. Ryan, The Trickster Shift: Humor and Irony in Contemporary Native Art (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999); and Eva Marie Garroutte, Real Indians: Identity and the Survival of Native America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).

44. See Jessica Horton, Art for an Undivided Earth (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2017); Amy Lonetree, Decolonizing Museums: Representing Native America in National and Tribal Museums (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012); Laura Smith, Horace Poolaw: Photographer of American Indian Modernity (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2016); Joanna Hearne, Native Recognition: Indigenous Cinema and the Western (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2012); S. Elizabeth Bird, Dressing in Feathers: The Construction of the Indian in American Popular Culture (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996); and Steven Leuthold, Indigenous Aesthetics: Native Art, Media, and Identity (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998). As a curator at the American Indian Community House Gallery, the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian, and most recently the Portland Art Museum, Ash-Milby has curated an impressive list of groundbreaking exhibitions of Native American art; Morgan created a transformational series of essays and interviews about contemporary art as the first editor at Canadian Art to focus on Indigenous art.

45. Speaking to Lena Mattheis on the Queer Lit podcast, Morgan noted their frustration with the heterosexism they encountered as a student in Native American Studies (“‘Indigenous Literature’ with Jas M. Morgan,” Queer Lit, August 2, 2022).

46. Jack Halberstam, The Queer Art of Failure (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2011).

47. Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics,” in “Feminism in the Law: Theory, Practice, and Criticism,” special issue, University of Chicago Legal Forum (1989): 139–68.

48. Monique Wittig, “The Straight Mind,” Feminist Issues 1, no. 1 (Summer 1980): 108–11.

49. Gilpin to Michelle Mertz, April 13, 1977, box 10, folder 21, Gilpin Papers.

50. Gilpin to Harriet Lyons, Ms., February 27, 1974, box 9, folder 19, Gilpin Papers.

51. Dorsey’s artwork (which includes this text) is reproduced in Mary Savig, “What Is Feminist Art?,” Archives of American Art Journal 60, no. 1 (Spring 2021): 69.

52. Jean Gallagher, The World Wars through the Female Gaze (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998).

53. Evon Vogt and Clyde Kluckhohn, with photographs by Leonard McCombe, Navaho Means People (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951).

54. Gilpin to Mitch Wilder, April 16, 1956, box 6, folder 11, Gilpin Papers.

55. Laura Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” Screen 16, no. 2 (October 1975): 6–18.

56. Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex (London: New English Library, 1962); Hortense Spillers, “All the Things You Could Be by Now, if Sigmund Freud’s Wife Was Your Mother: Psychoanalysis and Race,” boundary 2 23, no. 3 (Fall 1996): 75–141; Judith Butler, Gender Trouble (New York: Routledge, 1990).

57. Griselda Pollock, Vision and Difference: Feminism, Femininity, and the Histories of Art (London: Routledge, 2003), xxvii.

58. Jean Gallagher, The World Wars through the Female Gaze (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998), 8.

59. bell hooks, Black Looks: Race and Representation (Boston: South End Books, 1992), 2, 3.

60. Roderick A. Ferguson, “Of Our Normative Strivings: African American Studies and the Histories of Sexuality,” Social Text 23, nos. 3–4 (Fall–Winter 2005): 85, 86.

61. Alexander Doty, “There’s Something Queer Here,” excerpted in The Film Studies Reader, edited by Joanne Hollows, Peter Hutchings, and Mark Jancovich (London: Arnold, 2000), 339, quoting, in the last two instances, bell hooks.

62. Bobbi Rahder, “Gendered Stylistic Differences between Photographers of Native Americans at the Turn of the Century,” Journal of the West 35, no. 1 (January 1996): 89.

63. For example, Richard Throssel (Cree, 1882–1933), Horace Poolaw (Kiowa, 1906–1984), Jennie Ross Cobb (Cherokee, 1881–1959), and Lee Marmon (Laguna, 1925–2021). There is an extensive scholarly literature on the colonial gaze and its expression in photography.

64. Barbara Klaw to Frank Wardlaw, January 3, 1968, box 50, folder 13, Gilpin Papers.

65. Lloyd L. Lee and Jennifer Nez Denetdale, Navajo Sovereignty: Understandings and Visions of the Diné People (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2017).

66. Kevin Bruyneel, The Third Space of Sovereignty: The Postcolonial Politics of U.S.–Indigenous Relations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007); Mark Rifkin, When Did Indians Become Straight? Kinship, the History of Sexuality, and Native Sovereignty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); and Rifkin, Settler Common Sense: Queerness and Everyday Colonialism in the American Renaissance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014).

67. Michelle H. Raheja, Reservation Reelism: Redfacing, Visual Sovereignty, and Representations of Native Americans in Film (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010).

68. Bruyneel, Third Space of Sovereignty, xviii.

69. Bruyneel, Third Space of Sovereignty, 10.

70. Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987).

71. See also the pioneering work of Will Roscoe, from The Zuni Man-Woman (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991) to Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998).

72. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of a Prison (London: Penguin, 1991); and Foucault, The History of Sexuality: The Will to Knowledge (London: Penguin, 1998); Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, “Can the Subaltern Speak?,” in Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Larry Grossberg (Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1988), 271–313; Homi Bhabha, “Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse,” October 28 (Spring 1984): 125–33.

73. Jace Weaver, Robert Warrior, and Craig Womack, American Indian Literary Nationalism (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006); Simon Ortiz, “Towards a National Indian Literature: Cultural Authenticity in Nationalism,” MELUS 8, no. 2 (1981): 7–12.

74. Carolyn Epple, “Coming to Terms with Navajo ‘nádleehi’: A Critique of ‘Berdache,’ ‘Gay,’ ‘Alternate Gender,’ and ‘Two-Spirit,’” American Ethnologist 25, no. 2 (May 1998): 268, quoting David M. Halperin, One Hundred Years of Homosexuality and Other Essays on Greek Love (New York: Routledge, 1990), 28.

75. Qwo-Li Driskill, Chris Finley, Brian Joseph Gilley, and Scott Lauria Morgensen, eds., Queer Indigenous Studies: Critical Interventions in Theory, Politics, and Literature (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2011). The Cherokee scholar America Meredith has called my attention to Driskell’s manipulation of the academic marketplace to obscure his lack of connection to Cherokee culture (pers. comm., Facebook Messenger, March 18, 2021).

76. Rifkin, When Did Indians Become Straight?, 6.

77. Jennifer Nez Denetdale, “Carving Navajo National Boundaries: Patriotism, Tradition, and the Diné Marriage Act of 2005,” American Quarterly 60, no. 2 (2008): 289–94.

78. Gilpin to Barbara Spielman, January 31, 1968, box 50, folder 13, Gilpin Papers.

79. Gilpin to Spielman.

80. Gilpin to Spielman.

81. See Roessel, “Navajo Photography.” In 2004, Roessel participated in a symposium organized by the Center for Creative Photography and Arizona State Museum titled “Viewpoints: Native Americans and Photography,” at which responses from Diné to Gilpin’s work were largely positive (Margaret Regan, “Picturing Indians: A Symposium Tackles the Explosive Subject of Whites Photographing Native Americans,” Tucson Weekly, April 15, 2004, https://www.tucsonweekly.com/tucson/picturing-indians/Content?oid=1075915).

82. See, e.g., Scott Lauria Morgensen, Spaces between Us: Queer Settler Colonialism and Indigenous Decolonization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011).

1. Catherine Summerhayes, “Who in ‘Heaven’? Tracey Moffatt: Men in Wet-Suits and the Female Gaze,” in “Benjamin and Bakhtin: Vision and Visuality,” special issue, Journal of Narrative Theory 33, no. 1 (Winter 2003): 63–80. For broader conversations about working with archives and absence, see Marisa J. Fuentes, Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016); and Ann Laura Stoler, Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2014).

2. Jennie Klein, “The Lesbian Art Project,” Journal of Lesbian Studies 14, nos. 2–3 (2010): 257.

3. Laura Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” Screen 16, no. 2 (October 1975): 6–18.

4. Terry Castle, The Apparitional Lesbian (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).

5. Mary Ann Doane, Femmes Fatales: Feminism, Film Theory, Psychoanalysis (New York: Routledge, 1991), 1.

6. Biren was quoted in Tessa Boffin and Jean Fraser, eds., Stolen Glances: Lesbians Take Photographs (London: Pandora, 1991), 15.

7. Klein, “Lesbian Art Project,” 239.

8. Ariel Evans, “‘This Show Is for Women’: Photography after Lesbian Photography,” Miranda 25 (2022), 10.4000/miranda.44548; Margo Hobbs Thompson, “DIY Identity Kit: The Great American Lesbian Art Show,” Journal of Lesbian Studies 14, nos. 2–3 (2010): 260–82.

9. Klein, “Lesbian Art Project,” 238.

10. Thompson, “DIY Identity Kit,” 262. More recently, José Esteban Muñoz has made a similar argument in favor of understanding queerness in terms of acts rather than identity (“Ephemera as Evidence: Introductory Notes to Queer Acts,” Women and Performance: a journal of feminist theory 8, no. 2 [1996]: 5–16).

11. Jolene Rickard, “Diversifying Sovereignty and the Reception of Indigenous Art,” Art Journal 76, no. 2 (Summer 2017): 81–84.

12. Ginny Berson, untitled editorial introduction, The Furies 1 (January 1972): 1.

13. Quoted in Thompson, “DIY Identity Kit,” 281.

14. Heather Love, Feeling Backward: Loss and the Politics of Queer History (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), 37.

15. The Whiteness of this canon is notable and has, indeed, been noted by curators, activists, and scholars since the 1970s.

16. In the words of Jean Fraser and Tessa Boffin, “rather than attempting to naturalize a ‘lesbian aesthetic,’ we looked for work which concentrated on constructed, staged, or self-consciously manipulated imagery which might mirror the socially constructed nature of sexuality” (“Tantalizing Glimpses of Stolen Glances: Lesbians Take Photographs,” Feminist Review 38 [Summer 1991]: 20–21).

17. Amelia Jones, Seeing Differently: A History and Theory of Identification and the Visual Arts (New York: Routledge, 2012); Deborah Bright, The Passionate Camera: Photography and Bodies of Desire (New York: Routledge, 1998); Harmony Hammond, Lesbian Art in America (New York: Rizzoli, 2000); and Martha Gever, John Greyson, and Pratibha Parmar, Queer Looks: Perspectives on Lesbian and Gay Film and Video (New York: Routledge, 1993).

18. Caryatis Cardea, “A Question of Family,” Sinister Wisdom 55 (Spring/Summer 1995): 53.

19. Kath Weston, “The Lady Vanishes: On Never Knowing, Quite, Who Is a Lesbian,” Journal of Lesbian Studies 13, no. 2 (2009): 141.

20. Martha Sandweiss, introduction to Elizabeth W. Forster and Laura Gilpin, Denizens of the Desert (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988), 12. Because Sandweiss does not acknowledge Gilpin and Forster’s romantic partnership, she makes no suggestion that the editing was intended in part to disguise their relationship. It is important in the context of my argument to note that Gilpin’s explicit donation agreement with the Amon Carter was for her photographic archive. When Jerry Richardson was overseeing the distribution of her estate, he proposed that all her papers go with it. As Gilpin’s intimate family member, he therefore participated in and expanded her initial act of queer historical preservation.

21. Castle, Apparitional Lesbian.

22. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 23.

23. Helen Langa, “Seeing Queerly: Looking for Lesbian Presence and Absence in United States Visual Art, 1890 to 1950,” Journal of Lesbian Studies 14, nos. 2–3 (2010): 125.

24. For O’Keeffe, see Jeffrey Hogrefe, O’Keeffe: The Life of an American Legend (New York: Bantam Books, 1992); for Kahlo, Sarah M. Lowe, Frida Kahlo (New York: Universe, 1991).

25. Oktenberg, “Review: A Vanishing World,” 13. Emphasis added.

26. Jan Zita Grover, “Dykes in Context: Some Problems in Minority Representation,” in The Contest of Meaning: Critical Histories of Photography, edited by Richard Bolton (1989; repr. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992), 172.

27. “Story of Navahos Told via Slides by Laura Gilpin,” New Mexican, June 24, 1954.

28. Gilpin to Elizabeth Forster, circa 1918?, box 1, folder 13, Gilpin Papers; Forster to Gilpin, January 22, 1921, box 1, folder 17, Gilpin Papers.

29. Gilpin to Forster, April 17, 1922, box 1, folder 18, Gilpin Papers.

30. Gilpin to Forster, April 21, 1922, box 1, folder 18, Gilpin Papers.

31. Gilpin to Forster, April 25, 1922, box 1, folder 18, Gilpin Papers.

32. Gilpin to Forster, May 8, 1922, box 1, folder 18, Gilpin Papers.

33. “Laura Gilpin Retrospective,” brochure (Sante Fe: Museum of Fine Arts, Museum of New Mexico, 1974), 6.

34. Grover, “Dykes in Context,” 169. Emphasis added.

35. Grover, “Dykes in Context,” 170.

36. Julie Levin Russo, “Labor of Love: Charting The L Word,” in Wired TV: Laboring Over an Interactive Future, edited by Denise Mann (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2014), 104.

37. The L Word was created by Ilene Chaiken and ran on Showtime from 2004 to 2009; Damian Bellino and Anne Rodeman, “On Its 15th Anniversary, Remembering The L Word’s Most Enduring Legacy: The Chart,” Slate, January 17, 2019, https://slate.com/human-interest/2019/01/l-word-chart-anniversary-everyone-is-connected.html.

38. Mark S. Granovetter, “The Strength of Weak Ties,” American Journal of Sociology 78, no. 6 (May 1973): 1360–80.

39. Grover, “Dykes in Context,” 165.

40. “Carol Preston: Beauty, Simplicity, Unity,” The Potomac Term (Winter 2005): 17–18.

41. Seth-Smith to Gilpin, January 30, 1972, box 9, folder 8, Gilpin Papers.

42. Bourne to Gilpin, January 18, 1972, Gilpin Papers; information about Moore and Schickle comes from https://www.eastmountaindirectory.com/publishing/Historical/89-The-Mystery-of-Forest-Park.html, which is no longer accessible.

43. Hogrefe, O’Keeffe, 143.

44. Gilpin to Ned Hatathli, March 13, 1972, box 9, folder 9, Gilpin Papers.

45. Brenda Putnam, journal of trip, phase box 19, Gilpin Papers.

46. It is logical to assume that Putnam took the photographs in which Gilpin and Forster both appear, although photographs that include all three women suggest Gilpin also had a cable shutter release or other method for taking pictures remotely. The vexed question of authorship in these photographs (as well as Gilpin and Forster’s coauthorship of The Enduring Navaho) recalls recent conversations about queer collaboration: see, e.g., Tirza True Latimer, “Entre Nous: Between Claude Cahun and Marcel Moore,” GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 12, no. 2 (2006): 197–216.

47. Laura Doan, “Passing Fashions: Reading Female Masculinities in the 1920s,” Feminist Studies 24, no. 3 (Fall 1998): 664.

48. Alix Genter, “Appearances Can Be Deceiving: Butch-Femme Fashion and Queer Legibility in New York City, 1945–1969,” Feminist Studies 42, no. 3 (2016): 604–31. For more on pulps, see chapter 2.

49. Doan, “Passing Fashions,” 693.

50. Grover, “Dykes in Context,” 174.

51. Genter, “Appearances Can Be Deceiving,” 624.

52. Laura Gilpin to Philip D. Jones, director, University of Texas Press, November 11, 1975. The endpapers were discouraged by Wardlaw, but included in the fourth printing (Gilpin to Candace E. Adams, April 17, 1976, box 50, folder 17, Gilpin Papers).

53. Siddons, “Whither Art?”

54. Quoted in Putnam to Gilpin, October 23, 1924, box 1, folder 21, Gilpin Papers.

55. Putnam to Gilpin, May 15, 1927, box 2, folder 7, Gilpin Papers.

56. Antoinette Hervey to Gilpin, July 4, 1932, box 3, folder 2, Gilpin Papers.

57. Ira W. Martin to Gilpin, February 23, 1935, box 3, folder 7, Gilpin Papers.

58. Gilpin to Wilder, June 11, 1938, box 3, folder 11, Gilpin Papers.

59. Gilpin, “My Favorite Camera and Lens and Why,” typescript, first page, box 59, folder 15, Gilpin Papers.

60. Gilpin, “My Favorite Camera and Lens,” second page.

61. Gilpin, “My Favorite Camera and Lens,” first page.

62. Wednesday, “Freaky Hands: A Phenomenological Reflection on Lesbian Hands,” Journal of Lesbian Studies 12, no. 4 (2008): 400–402.

63. Christopher Ribbat, “Queer and Straight Photography,” Amerikastudien/American Studies 46, no. 1 (2001): 36. Goldin described herself as bisexual in a 2010 interview with Sleek magazine that was republished online in 2017 (https://www.sleek-mag.com/article/aids-through-nan-goldins-eyes/)).

64. Quoted in Thompson, “DIY Identity Kit,” 266.

65. Thompson, “DIY Identity Kit,” 267.

66. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 23.

67. Gilpin to Raymond Carlson, Arizona Highways, December 3, 1953, box 5, folder 22, Gilpin Papers.

68. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 118.

69. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 120.

70. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 120.

71. David Peters Corbett and Alexander Nemerov, organizers, “Experience and American Art,” Courtauld Institute of Art, London, UK, March 23–24, 2018.

72. See, e.g., Lerner Publishing’s “We Are Still Here” series, which “offer[s] readers glimpses into modern Native American life and how historic cultural traditions have been integrated into it”; the 2018 documentary We Are Still Here: A Story from Native Alaska (Al Jazeera Correspondent); the 2007 film We Are Still Here (dir. Leigh Podgorski); and countless titles of exhibitions, articles, etc.

73. Tirza True Latimer, “Improper Objects: Performing Queer/Feminist Art/History,” in Otherwise: Imagining Queer Feminist Art Histories, edited by Amelia Jones and Erin Silver (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016), 95.

74. Butler’s theory of performative gender was made mainstream in her canonical text, Gender Trouble, and subsequently nuanced in texts such as Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex (New York: Routledge, 1993).

75. Norman Bryson, “Todd Haynes’s Poison and Queer Cinema,” InVisible Culture: An Electronic Journal for Visual Studies 1 (Winter 1998), https://www.rochester.edu/in_visible_culture/issue1/bryson/bryson.html; Judith Roof, “Thinking Post-Identity,” in “Thinking Post-Identity,” special issue, Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association 36, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 1–5.

76. Karl Whittington, “Queer,” in “Medieval Art History Today,” special issue, Studies in Iconography 33 (2012): 157. Whittington is borrowing from both Butler and Eve Sedgwick in his construction.

77. Jennifer Nez Denetdale, “Building the Perfect Human to Invade: An Indigenous Feminist Queer Analysis of the Pandemic on the Navajo Nation,” Biennial McMillan-Stewart Lecture Series, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, October 21, 2020. In the discussion after Denetdale’s talk, an MIT faculty member queried her use of the term queer when her talk had not referenced LBGTQ2S+ histories or people, and she explained that she was using the term in this broader structural sense rather than addressing the experiences of LGBTQ2S+ Diné.

78. Karma Lochrie, Heterosyncrasies: Female Sexuality When Normal Wasn’t (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005).

79. Adam Isaiah Green, “Gay but Not Queer: Toward a Post-Queer Study of Sexuality,” Theory and Society 31, no. 4 (2002): 521–45; Ian Barnard, “Queer Race,” Social Semiotics 9, no. 2 (1999): 199–211. Visibility can also be weaponized; see, e.g., Toby Beauchamp, Going Stealth: Transgender Politics and U.S. Surveillance Practices (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2019).

80. Castle, Apparitional Lesbian, 2.

81. Castle, Apparitional Lesbian, 2–3.

82. The value of queer theory as a tool to “expose the regulatory hierarchies that define and qualify the heterosexual imperative as normal,” as Robert Mills has proposed, has evident links to the deconstructive goals of colonial and postcolonial theory, subaltern studies, and other disciplines that seek to expose similar hierarchies governing race and ethnicity (“‘Whatever You Do Is a Delight to Me!’: Masculinity, Masochism, and Queer Play in Representations of Male Martyrdom,” Exemplaria 13 [2001]: 2).

83. In 2017, 3 percent of grant dollars awarded to LGBTQ2+ organizations went to lesbian organizations, compared with 6 percent targeting men, less than 1 percent targeting bisexual audiences, and 17 percent to trans initiatives (Funders for LGBTQ Issues, 2017 Tracking Report: LGBTQ Grantmaking by U.S. Foundations, 2019, https://lgbtfunders.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/2017TrackingReport_07.pdf). According to the Centers for Disease Control, suicide “disproportionately affects American Indians/Alaska Natives (AI/AN). The suicide rate among AI/AN has been increasing since 2003, and in 2015, AI/AN suicide rates in the eighteen states participating in the National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) were 21.5 per 100,000, more than 3.5 times higher than those among racial/ethnic groups with the lowest rates” (Rachel A. Leavitt, Allison Ertl, Kameron Sheats, Emiko Petrosky, Asha Ivey-Stephenson, and Katherine A. Fowler, Suicides among American Indian/Alaska Natives—National Violent Death Reporting System, 18 States, 2003–2014, MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 67 [2018]: 237–42, http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6708a1).

1. Putnam, journal of trip, phase box 19, Gilpin Papers.

2. Gilpin to Audrie Bobb, January 7, 1972, box 9, folder 9, Gilpin Papers.

3. For more on tourism in the Southwest and particularly on and across the Navajo Nation, see Erika Marie Bsumek, Indian Made: Navajo Culture in the Marketplace (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008); Erica Cottam, Hubbell Trading Post: Trade, Tourism, and the Navajo Southwest (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2020); Virginia Scharff and Carolyn Brucken, Home Lands: How Women Made the West (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010); Henry Jack Tobias and Charles E. Woodhouse, Santa Fe: A Modern History, 1880–1990 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2001); Shelby J. Tisdale, “Railroads, Tourism, and Native Americans in the Greater Southwest,” in “Southwestern Indian Art Markets,” special issue, Journal of the Southwest 38, no. 4 (Winter 1996): 433–62.

4. Joy Sperling, “Women, Tourism, and the Visual Narrative of Interwar Tourism in the American Southwest,” in Encounters with Popular Pasts: Cultural Heritage and Popular Culture, edited by Mike Robinson and Helaine Silverman (New York: Springer, 2015), 86–87.

5. Elizabeth W. Forster, Denizens of the Desert, edited by Martha A. Sandweiss (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988), 13.

6. Goldberg, Willa Cather and Others, 166, quoting Forster, Denizens, 34.

7. Goldberg, Willa Cather and Others, 167.

8. The list generally includes Gladys Reichard, Mary Wheelwright, Maude Oakes, Franc Newcomb, Elsie Clews Parsons, Ruth Benedict, Esther Goldfrank, Ruth Bunzel, Matilda Coxe Stevenson, Mary Austin, Laura Armer, Dama Smith, Florence Hawley Ellis, Mary Shepardson, Ruth Underhill, and many more. See Nancy J. Parezo, preface to Hidden Scholars: Women Anthropologists and the Native American Southwest (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993), xii.

9. Parezo, preface, xii.

10. Parezo, preface, xvii.

11. Parezo, “Anthropology: The Welcoming Science,” in Parezo, Hidden Scholars, 15.

12. Bonnie Zimmerman, “The Politics of Transliteration: Lesbian Personal Narratives,” in “The Lesbian Issue,” special issue, Signs 9, no. 4 (Summer 1984): 668.

13. Sandra Harding, “Thinking from the Perspective of Lesbian Lives,” in Whose Science? Whose Knowledge? Thinking from Women’s Lives (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991), 250.

14. Louis A. Hieb, “Elsie Clews Parsons in the Southwest,” in Parezo, Hidden Scholars, 66–67.

15. New School for Social Research, Announcement of Courses of Study, October, 1919–May, 1920 (New York: New School, 1919), 14, https://digitalarchives.library.newschool.edu/index.php/Detail/objects/NS050101_ns1919ye.

16. A. L. Kroeber, “Elsie Clews Parsons,” American Anthropologist 45 (1943): 252.

17. Moraga, quoted in Zimmerman, “Politics of Transliteration,” 676. Emphasis in the original.

18. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, vii.

19. Michael Frisch, A Shared Authority: Essays on the Craft and Meaning of Oral and Public History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990).

20. For a discussion of queer distance and racial consciousness, see Hilary Harris, “Failing ‘White Woman’: Interrogating the Performance of Respectability,” Theatre Journal 52, no. 2 (May 2000): 183–209. Quoted text is on p. 202.

21. Laura Gilpin, The Pueblos: A Camera Chronicle (New York: Hastings House, 1941).

22. For more on automobile tourism at Mesa Verde, see Duane A. Smith, Mesa Verde National Park: Shadows of the Centuries (Denver: University Press of Colorado, 2004), https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/smith/index.htm.

23. Putnam journal, phase box 19, Gilpin Papers.

24. Willa Cather, The Song of the Lark: The Willa Cather Scholarly Edition, edited by Ann Moseley and Kari A. Ronning (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012), pt. 4, chap. 3, https://cather.unl.edu/writings/books/0023#pt4.

25. Putnam journal, phase box 19, Gilpin Papers.

26. Gertrude Käsebier comments as reported by Putnam, October 23, 1924, box 1, folder 21, Gilpin Papers.

27. Bidtah Nellie Becker, “Sovereignty from the Individual Diné Perspective,” in Navajo Sovereignty: Understandings and Visions of the Diné People, edited by Lloyd L. Lee (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2017), 47.

28. Megan Gambino, “Q&A: Comic Artist Jolene Nenibah Yazzie,” Smithsonian, March 16, 2009, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/qa-comic-artist-jolene-nenibah-yazzie-1-42304446/.

29. Gambino. In an interview with Indian Country News, Yazzie went into further detail about the history of sexual violence in her own family. See Natasha Kaye Johnson, “Navajo Artist Creates Skateboards Featuring Female Warrior Images,” Indian Country Today, September 7, 2007.

30. “Jolene Nenibah Yazzie,” Beat Nation, http://www.beatnation.org/jolene-nenibah-yazzie.html#null. The content of this site was created before Yazzie graduated from IAIA in 2008.

31. Clyde Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton, The Navaho (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1946), 56.

32. Martin A. Link, ed., Treaty between the United States of America and the Navajo Tribe of Indians, with a Record of the Discussions That Led to Its Signing (Flagstaff, Ariz.: KC Publications, 1968), 2.

33. Gilpin titled this photograph “The Summer Hogan,” but according to the Diné historian and genealogist Corey Smallcanyon, “shelter” is preferable to “hogan” when referring to summer dwellings, since they are not technically hogans at all. Gilpin tended to use “shelter” herself when discussing summer homes, with the title of the portrait of Old Lady Long Salt and her family a notable exception.

34. Gilpin and Forster often chose sugar and coffee as host gifts; see Forster, Denizens, 125.

35. Goldberg, Willa Cather and Others, 172.

36. Homi K. Bhabha, “Cultural Diversity and Cultural Differences,” in The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, edited by B. Ashcroft, G. Griffiths, and H. Tiffin (New York: Routledge, 2006), 155–57.

37. Griselda Pollock, keynote, Association for Art History conference, London, April 7, 2018.

38. For a thorough review of the theory of the photographic trace, see Daniel Nevin, “Photography and the Paradigm of the Trace,” Edith Cowan University, 2013, http://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/571.

39. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 61.

40. For more on the connection between hogans and health, see chapter 3.

41. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 65.

42. Sandweiss, introduction to Forster, Denizens, 21.

43. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 68–69.

44. Corey Smallcanyon, pers. comm. (online meeting), July 29, 2020.

45. Timon Screech, The Lens within the Heart: The Western Scientific Gaze and Popular Imagery in Later Edo Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2002).

46. Kyle Muzyka, “Why Every Navajo Baby’s First Laugh Is Celebrated,” CBC Radio, January 17, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/radio/unreserved/stand-up-sketch-and-satire-the-rise-of-indigenous-comedy-1.5425646/why-every-navajo-baby-s-first-laugh-is-celebrated-1.5430265.

47. “The Rite to Laugh,” Indian Trader, April 1986, 14.

48. Warren Perkins, Putrefaction Live (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2009), 234.

49. “Rite to Laugh,” 14.

50. Louise Lamphere, “Historical and Regional Variability in Navajo Women’s Roles,” in “Navajo Ethnology,” special issue, Journal of Anthropological Research 45, no. 4 (Winter 1989): 439. Malcolm Carr Collier worked with Katherine Spencer and Dorian Wooley in Pueblo Alto in 1937, publishing with them in 1939; she married the archaeologist Donald Collier.

51. Kluckhohn and Leighton, Navaho, 48. Their use of scare quotes around “sacred” is indicative of the kind of condescension that made Diné generally wary of anthropologists and Gilpin specifically reluctant to identify with them.

52. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, v; Carol Preston and Helen Seth-Smith to Gilpin and Forster, 1968, box 50, folder 13, Gilpin Papers.

53. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, v.

54. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 3.

55. In 1949, salt literally cost twenty cents per pound on the Navajo Nation. See Larry Dalrymple, “Stewart Hatch: A Lifetime Trading with the Navajo and Ute,” Journal of the Southwest 55, no. 4 (Winter 2013): 502.

56. “The Price of Salt had more than half a million copies in print by the arrival of the 1958 Bantam paperback edition; and by 1963, the Ladder estimated over a million copies in print. . . . One million copies means that one of every two hundred people (adults and children) in the United States might have purchased a copy of this one book” (Yvonne Keller, “‘Was It Right to Love Her Brother’s Wife So Passionately?’: Lesbian Pulp Novels and U.S. Lesbian Identity, 1950–1965,” American Quarterly 57, no. 2 [June 2005]: 404).

57. Sandweiss, introduction to Forster, Denizens, 9.

58. Courtney Lawton, “Willa Cather and ‘Solastalgia’: Yearning for a Lost, Invented Landscape,” Resources for American Literary Study 38 (2015): 108. Alice Boughton acknowledges Cather’s lesbianism in her letter to Gilpin of March 21, 1929 (box 2, folder 11, Gilpin Papers).

59. Lawton, “Willa Cather,” 101.

60. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 72. See also Louise Lamphere, “Gladys Reichard among the Navajo,” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 12, no. 3 (1992): 92.

61. Forster to Gilpin, May 3, 1932, box 27, Gilpin Papers.

62. Sandweiss, introduction to Forster, Denizens, 10–11. This narrative is to be taken with a grain of, dare I say it, salt: White women learning to weave from Navajo women is something of a cliché in anthropological history, as in Lamphere’s biographical study of Reichard.

63. Lamphere, “Gladys Reichard among the Navajo,” 92.

64. David Herd and Stephen Collis, “Making Space for the Human: Rights, the Anthropocene, and Recognition,” European Journal of American Culture 39, no. 1 (March 2020): 13–27.

65. Jennifer McLerran, “The History and Progress of the Navajo People: Dual Significance in Gerald Nailor’s Navajo Nation Council Chamber Murals,” American Indian Art Magazine 37, no. 4 (Autumn 2012): 44.

66. Lamphere, “Historical and Regional Variability . . . ,” 433–34.

67. For more on the relationship between land and colonial politics on the Navajo Nation, see Deborah Lacarenza, “An Historical Overview of the Navajo Relocation,” Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine (September 1988): https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/historical-overview-navajo-relocation.

68. For more on compulsory relocation and its effect on Navajo people, see chapters 3 and 4 in the present volume and Thayer Scudder, No Place to Go: Effects of Compulsory Relocation on Navajos (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1982).

69. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 179.

70. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 179, 181.

71. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 181.

72. Roland Barthes, Camera Lucida (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982), 27, 40.

73. Nancy Marie Mithlo, “‘A Real Feminine Journey’: Locating Indigenous Feminisms in the Arts,” Meridians 9, no. 2 (2009): 21.

74. Kluckhohn and Leighton, Navaho, 56. Despite their acknowledgment of the high status of women in Navajo culture, they still characterize women’s income as “extra.”

75. Quoted in Lamphere, “Historical and Regional Variability,” 442. Hamamsy’s transcription of the pidgin English of her informant is put to problematic political use, and I have therefore chosen to translate it into more standard English in order to focus on the content of her statement. Despite this, Hamamsy’s decision to quote Navajo women directly honors their perspective and preserves it from the distortion of translation into Anglo frames: John M. Roberts (“Three Navaho Households: A Comparative Study in Small Group Culture,” Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 40, no. 3 [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951]), in contrast, suggested in the face of the same evidence that “mothers were self-reliant and could manage very well when their husbands were absent”—as though when those same husbands were present, they took charge of household affairs (quoted in Lamphere, “Historical and Regional Variability,” 437).

76. Lamphere, “Historical and Regional Variability,” 431, quoting M. Shepardson, “The Status of Navajo Women,” American Indian Quarterly 6, nos. 1–2 (1982): 149.

77. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 169.

78. Chet MacRorie, “J. Maurice McCabe—Rest in Peace,” Navajo Times, September 5, 1974.

79. MacRorie, “J. Maurice McCabe.”

80. Gilpin to Wardlaw, May 31, 1967, box 50, folder 4, Gilpin Papers.

81. George Hardeen, “The Late Navajo Tribal Chairman Raymond Nakai Remembered as 1st Modern Diné Leader,” Navajo-Hopi Observer, August 25, 2005, https://www.nhonews.com/news/2005/aug/25/the-late-navajo-tribal-chairman-raymond-nakai-rem/.

82. Jolene Yazzie, pers. comm., August 13, 2018.

83. Lynne Robinson, “Work by Women: Jolene Yazzie,” taoStyle, January 24, 2018, http://taostyle.net/2018/01/work-by-women-jolene-yazzie/.

84. “Jolene Nenibah Yazzie,” Beat Nation.

85. “Secretary Haaland Creates New Missing and Murdered Unit to Pursue Justice for Missing or Murdered American Indians and Alaska Natives,” press release, U.S. Department of the Interior, DOI News, April 1, 2021, https://www.doi.gov/news/secretary-haaland-creates-new-missing-murdered-unit-pursue-justice-missing-or-murdered-american.

86. As, for example, in the mural she painted at the Harwood Museum of Art in Taos, New Mexico, February 9–May 13, 2018: see http://www.harwoodmuseum.org/exhibitions/view/179. Yazzie’s mural was part of the exhibition “Superheroes: Icons of Good, Evil, and Everything In Between,” curated by Neilie Johnson and Rhiannon Mercer, October 1, 2011–January 7, 2012.

87. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 133.

88. Yazzie herself has declined an invitation to offer an interpretation of those hands (pers. comm., January 29, 2020).

89. Ansel Adams, The Negative: Exposure and Development (New York: Morgan and Lester, 1948).

90. Amy Conger, typescript, page 6, box 33, Gilpin Papers.

91. Alice Boughton to Gilpin, March 21, 1929, box 2, folder 11, Gilpin Papers.

92. Trisha Franzen, “Differences and Identities: Feminism and the Albuquerque Lesbian Community,” in “Theorizing Lesbian Experience,” special issue, Signs 18, no. 4 (Summer 1993): 895n3.

93. Janis P. Stout, “Modernist by Association: Willa Cather’s New York,” American Literary Realism 47, no. 2 (Winter 2015): 134n62.

94. Molly H. Mullin, Culture in the Marketplace: Gender, Art, and Value in the American Southwest (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001), 73.

95. Lukas was interviewed by Mullin in 1991 and is quoted in Culture in the Marketplace, 72.

96. Barbara A. Babcock, “‘Not in the Absolute Singular’: Re-Reading Ruth Benedict,” Frontiers 12, no. 3 (1992): 48, quoting Margaret Mead, ed., An Anthropologist at Work: Writings of Ruth Benedict (New York: Avon Books, 1973), 291, 293.

97. Lamphere, “Gladys Reichard,” 93.

98. Stout, “Modernist by Association,” 128.

99. Capote, Answered Prayers: The Unfinished Novel (New York: Plume, 1988), 179. Like The Enduring Navaho, although for very different reasons, Answered Prayers had a long journey from conception—sometime around 1966—to its posthumous appearance in book form (still unfinished) in 1987. Truman intended the book as a “non-fiction novel” allegedly based on his own letters, diaries, and journals from 1943 through 1965 (Answered Prayers, xi).

100. Hogrefe, O’Keeffe, 143.

101. Tom Perrin, “Rebuilding Bildung: The Middlebrow Novel of Aesthetic Education in the Mid-Twentieth-Century United States,” A Forum on Fiction 44, no. 3 (Fall 2011): 391.

102. Perrin, “Rebuilding Bildung,” 392.

103. Kate Adams, “Making the World Safe for the Missionary Position: Images of the Lesbian in Post-World War II America,” in Lesbian Texts and Contexts: Radical Revisions, edited by Karla Jay and Joanne Glasgow (New York: New York University Press, 1990), 272.

104. Oscar Wilde, “The Soul of Man under Socialism,” Fortnightly Review 55/49 (February 1891): 292–319, quoted in Matthew Beaumont, “Reinterpreting Oscar Wilde’s Concept of Utopia: ‘The Soul of Man under Socialism,’” Utopian Studies 15, no. 1 (2004): 13–29.

105. Sue-Ellen Jacobs, “Is the ‘North American Berdache’ a Phantom in the Imagination of Western Social Scientists?,” in Two-Spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality, edited by Sue-Ellen Jacobs, Wesley Thomas, and Sabine Lang (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 21–43.

106. Brant, quoted in Jacobs, “Is the ‘North American Berdache’ a Phantom,” 31.

107. Sabine Lang, “Various Kinds of Two-Spirit People: Gender Variance and Homosexuality in Native American Communities,” in Jacobs, Thomas, and Lang, Two-Spirit People, 105–6. See also Carolyn Epple’s conclusion that nádleeh identity is defined by Navajo informants as “humans responding to situations” (Epple, “A Navajo Worldview and Nádleehí,” in Jacobs, Thomas, and Lang, Two-Spirit People, 184).

108. Forster, Denizens, 125.

109. Outsiders were considered socially distinct by many Native communities in the Southwest, so Diné observers of Forster and Gilpin may not have considered their gender categories and norms seriously applicable.

110. Sandweiss, Enduring Grace, 91–92.

111. Brad Cole and Edith Kennedy, “Edith Kennedy Interview,” March 12, 1998, United Indian Traders Association Oral History Project, Northern Arizona University, https://library.nau.edu/speccoll/exhibits/traders/oralhistories/textfiles/kennedy-e.txt.

112. David Vestal, “Laura Gilpin: Photographer of the Southwest,” Popular Photography 80 (February 1977): 134.

113. Corinn Columpar, “The Gaze as Theoretical Touchstone: The Intersection of Film Studies, Feminist Theory, and Postcolonial Theory,” in “Looking across the Lens: Women’s Studies and Film,” special issue, Women’s Studies Quarterly 30, nos. 1–2 (Spring–Summer 2002): 34.

114. Gilpin to Jeaneen Morris, August 18, 1968, box 50, folder 5, Gilpin Papers.

115. Ned Hatathli to Gilpin, November 20, 1968, box 50, folder 13, Gilpin Papers.

116. Gilpin to Steve [Rice?], August 9, 1971, box 50, folder 7, Gilpin Papers.

117. Gilpin to Mitch Wilder, undated, box 7, folder 10, Gilpin Papers.

118. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 69–72.

119. Sandweiss, Enduring Grace, 91.

120. Mithlo, “‘Real Feminine Journey,’” 26.

121. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 141–42.

122. Anonymous, “Indian Detours,” November 1930, p. 5, in Sperling, “Women, Tourism,” 91.

123. Mary Austin, The American Rhythm (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1923), 41.

124. Capote, Answered Prayers, 179–80.

125. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 162.

126. The decision to use a hogan as the model for the Tribal Council Building was not without controversy; see Rachel Leibowitz, “The Million Dollar Play House: The Office of Indian Affairs and the Pueblo Revival in the Navajo Capital,” Buildings & Landscapes: Journal of the Vernacular Architecture Forum 15 (Fall 2008): 11–42.

127. Jennifer McLerran, “The History and Progress of the Navajo People: Dual Significance in Gerald Nailor’s Navajo Nation Council Chamber Murals,” American Indian Art Magazine 37, no. 4 (Autumn 2012): 45.

128. Kelli Carmean, Spider Woman Walks This Land: Traditional Cultural Properties and the Navajo Nation (Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira, 2002), 59.

129. Kluckhohn and Leighton, Navaho, 56.

130. Bruyneel, Third Space of Sovereignty.

131. Kluckhohn and Leighton, Navaho, 55.

132. Sandweiss, introduction to Forster, Denizens, 6.

133. Lamphere, “Historical and Regional Variability . . . ,” 432.

134. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 170, 171.

135. While in Washington, D.C., for the award ceremony, Wauneka visited McCabe, who was serving as a tribal representative at the Capitol and who was Wauneka’s clan relative and also part of the “Old Guard” in tribal politics. Although Gilpin refrained from overt comments about internal Navajo politics in public, she was loyal to the Old Guard, many of whom had befriended and supported her when she began photographing Navajo subjects in the 1930s. The key biography of Wauneka is Carolyn Niethammer, I’ll Go and Do More: Annie Dodge Wauneka, Navajo Leader and Activist (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001).

136. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 169.

137. Wauneka is often incorrectly identified as the first woman on the tribal council, but Lily J. Neil preceded her (Niethammer, I’ll Go and Do More, 76).

138. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 169.

139. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 169–71.

140. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 28–29.

141. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 32.

142. Forster, Denizens, 103.

143. Roger Sanjek, “The Ethnographic Present,” Man, n.s., 26, no. 4 (December 1991): 609–28.

1. Her colleagues also characterized her as a landscape photographer from an early moment: for example, Putnam to Gilpin, May 15, 1927, box 2, folder 7, Gilpin Papers.

2. Gilpin quoted in Brush, Working, 132.

3. Gilpin to T. J. Maloney, February 20, 1941, box 4, folder 1, Gilpin Papers.

4. Gilpin to Gloria Steinem, August 24, 1974, box 9, folder 19, Gilpin Papers.

5. The first Spanish ventures into the region were in 1539–40; Juan de Oñate was assigned to oversee its colonization in 1598. See Ramón Gutiérrez, “The Politics of Theater in Colonial New Mexico: Drama and the Rhetoric of Conquest,” in Reconstructing a Chicano/a Literary Heritage: Hispanic Colonial Literature of the Southwest, edited by María Hererra-Sobek (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993), 49–67.

6. The Navajo Indian Problem: An Inquiry Sponsored by the Phelps-Stokes Fund (New York, 1939), microfilm. Inquiry staff: Thomas Jesse Jones, Educational director of the Phelps-Stokes Fund; Harold B. Allen, President National Farm School; Charles T. Loram, Chairman of Department of Race Relations, Yale University; Ella Deloria, Sioux Indian, Anthropologist. Vi: map “Indian Tribes, Reservations and Settlements in the United States.”

7. Sonia Bleeker, The Navajo: Herders, Weavers, and Silversmiths (London: Dennis Dobson, 1961). Frontispiece is a map, presumably by the illustrator Patricia Boodell.

8. Dorothea Leighton and Clyde Kluckhohn, Children of the People: The Navaho Individual and His Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1947).

9. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (30 U.S. (5 Pet.) q (1831)).

10. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (Cambridge: Verso, 1983); Lloyd L. Lee, “The Future of Navajo Nationalism,” Wicazo Sa Review 22, no. 1 (2007): 53–68.

11. James W. Byrkit, “Land, Sky, and People: The Southwest Defined,” in “The Southwest Defined,” special issue, Journal of the Southwest 34, no. 3 (Autumn 1992): 328.

12. Captain J[ohn]. G. Walker and Major O[liver]. L. Shepherd, The Navajo Reconnaissance: A Military Exploration of the Navajo Country in 1859, edited by L. R. Bailey (Los Angeles: Westernlore, 1964).

13. Joseph E. Johnston, R. B. Marcy, James H. Simpson, and W. H. C. Whiting, “Map of the route pursued in 1849 by the U.S. troops . . .” (Philadelphia: P. S. Duval’s Lith. Steam, 1849), https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~312984~90082200.

14. Wendy S. Shaw, R. D. K. Herman, and G. Rebecca Dobbs, “Encountering Indigeneity: Re-Imagining and Decolonizing Geography,” in “Encountering Indigeneity: Re-imagining and Decolonizing Geography,” special issue, Geografiska Annaler. Series B, Human Geography 88, no. 3 (2006): 267–76.

15. Hugh Brody, Maps and Dreams (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982); Mark Warhus, Another America: Native American Maps and the History of Our Land (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997); Malcolm Lewis, ed., Cartographic Encounters: Perspectives on Native American Mapmaking and Map Use (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).

16. William C. Meadows, Kiowa Ethnogeography (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008), 185; Annita Hetoevėhotohke’e Lucchesi, “‘Indians Don’t Make Maps’: Indigenous Cartographic Traditions and Innovations,” American Indian Culture & Research Journal 42, no. 3 (2018): 11–26. Lucchesi has published extensively on the subject of Native North American mapping. See also Adam Loften and Emmanuel Vaughan-Lee, “Counter Mapping,” Emergence Magazine, December 2, 2019, https://emergencemagazine.org/film/counter-mapping/.

17. Sherry M. Huhndorf, Mapping the Americas: The Transnational Politics of Contemporary Native Culture (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2009), 140–41.

18. Martin A. Link, ed., Treaty between the United States of America and the Navajo Tribe of Indians, with a Record of the Discussions That Led to Its Signing (Flagstaff, Ariz.: KC Publications, 1968), 2.

19. Elizabeth L. Lewton and Victoria Bydone, “Identity and Healing in Three Navajo Religious Traditions: Sa’ah Naagháí Bik’eh Hózhó,” in “Ritual Healing in Navajo Society,” special issue, Medical Anthropology Quarterly 14, no. 4 (December 2000): 484.

20. Mishuana Goeman, “(Re)Mapping Indigenous Presence on the Land in Native Women’s Literature,” American Quarterly 60, no. 2 (June 2008): 298–99.

21. Link, Treaty, 3.

22. Link, Treaty, 5–6.

23. John L. Kessell, “General Sherman and the Navajo Treaty of 1868: A Basic and Expedient Misunderstanding,” Western Historical Quarterly 12, no. 3 (July 1981): 260.

24. United States Topographical Bureau, “Old Territory and Military Department of New Mexico,” [Washington, D.C.], 1867, https://www.loc.gov/resource/g4300.np000065/?r=0.055,0.086,1.019,0.603,0.

25. Kessell, “General Sherman and the Navajo Treaty of 1868,” 261.

26. Gilpin, Pueblos.

27. Gilpin to Vincente Sanchez Gavite, Mexican Embassy, Washington, D.C., February 4, 1946, box 4, folder 12, Gilpin Papers; Gilpin, The Rio Grande, River of Destiny: An Interpretation of the River, the Land, and the People (New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1949). The 1924 founding of the U.S. Border Patrol was part of a broader racialization and militarization of the U.S.–Mexico border (Emma Pérez, “Queering the Borderlands: The Challenge of Excavating the Invisible and Unheard,” in “Gender on the Borderlands,” special issue, Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 24, nos. 2–3 [2003]: 122–31; Douglas S. Massey, “The Mexico-US Border in the American Imagination,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 160, no. 2 [June 2016]: 160–77).

28. Laura Gilpin, “Why I Live in New Mexico,” 1957, box 6, folder 15, Gilpin Papers.

29. Quoted in Sandweiss, Enduring Grace, 88.

30. Esther Belin, “Bringing Hannah Home,” in From the Belly of My Beauty (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999), reprinted by the Poetry Foundation at https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/53454/bringing-hannah-home; Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 4. Gilpin gets this particular piece of information from Aileen O’Bryan, The Diné: Origins Myths of the Navaho Indians (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 163 [1956]): 1–194, in which O’Bryan documents the Creation Story as told by Sadoval (Hastin Tlo’tsi hee) in 1928. O’Bryan, who was trained as a nurse, was married to Jesse Nusbaum from 1920 to 1939 and worked closely with him on the development of Mesa Verde as a national park.

31. Kathy M’Closkey, Swept under the Rug: A Hidden History of Navajo Weaving (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008), 24.

32. Kevin S. Blake, “In Search of a Navajo Sacred Geography,” Geographical Review 91, no. 4 (October 2001): 719.

33. Susan Scarberry-Garcia, quoted in Goeman, “(Re)Mapping Indigenous Presence,” 298–99.

34. This trend continues into the twenty-first century: see, e.g., John W. Sherry, Land, Wind, and Hard Words: A Story of Navajo Activism (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002). The implicit superiority of the White author(ity) is relatively subtle in midcentury academic anthropology, but oozes from amateur ethnographers; see, e.g., Terry and Don Allen, Navahos Have Five Fingers (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), whose attitude was rightly condemned by a 1965 reviewer (Bernard L. Fontana, “Navahos Have Five Fingers [Review],” Arizona and the West 7, no. 2 [Summer 1965]: 165–66).

35. The dam was constructed between 1958 and 1963.

36. Raymond D. Austin, “Diné Sovereignty, a Legal and Traditional Analysis,” in Lee, Navajo Sovereignty, 33.

37. Quoted in Lee, Navajo Sovereignty, 10. See also Michael Lerma, Guided by the Mountains: Navajo Political Philosophy and Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).

38. Gilpin to Barbara Spielman, January 31, 1968, box 50, folder 5, Gilpin Papers.

39. Herbert Blatchford, “Religion of the People,” n.d., in The Way: An Anthology of American Indian Literature, edited by Shirley Hill Witt and Stan Steiner (New York: Vintage Books, 1972), 176–77.

40. Charlotte Davidson, “A Methodology of Beauty,” in Reclaiming Indigenous Research in Higher Education, edited by Robin Starr Minthorn and Heather J. Shotton (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2018), 36.

41. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 9.

42. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 10.

43. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 16.

44. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 16.

45. “Alice” to Gilpin, May 16, 1917, box 1, folder 12, Gilpin Papers. There is some evidence that this is Alice Eleanor Shinn, and that the “Aunt Alice” she mentions is the photographer Alice Boughton, who also corresponded with Gilpin, and who was associated with the Clarence White School (Alice Boughton, Photographing the Famous [New York: Avondale, 1928]).

46. Beaumont Newhall, Airborne Camera: The World from the Air and Outer Space (London: Hastings House / The Focal Press, 1969), 54.

47. Quoted in Newhall, Airborne Camera, 54.

48. Air travel changed rapidly throughout the decade: 6,000 commercial flights were taken in the United States in 1930, but 450,000 were taken in 1934, and by 1938 1.2 million Americans were traveling by air annually (“Road Warrior Voices: This Is What It Was Like to Fly in the 1930s,” USA Today, January 10, 2016, https://eu.usatoday.com/story/travel/roadwarriorvoices/2016/01/10/this-is-what-it-was-like-to-fly-in-the-1930s/83283086/).

49. Gilpin to Dr. Clyde Fisher, March 16, 1942, box 4, folder 3, Gilpin Papers. In 1942 the Farm Security Administration was taken over by the Office of War Information.

50. Gilpin to Isabel Herdle, February 23, 1942, box 4, folder 3, Gilpin Papers.

51. Gilpin to Mrs. Maurice Muret [Charlotte], November 17, 1942, box 4, folder 3, Gilpin Papers.

52. Brush, Working, 187.

53. Gilpin to George L. Findlay, October 30, 1945, box 4, folder 7, Gilpin Papers.

54. Undated letter from Fannie (“Fanny”) Robbins to Gilpin, ca. 1945, box 4, folder 7, Gilpin Papers; Forster to Gilpin, May 18, 1944, box 4, folder 6, Gilpin Papers.

55. Forster to Gilpin, December 11, 1944, box 4, folder 6, Gilpin Papers. The phrase “often in a fog” is from Robbins to Gilpin, ca. 1945.

56. Forster and Gilpin, Denizens, 21.

57. Gilpin, in Santa Fe, to L. L. Denton, Colorado Springs, June 13, 1946, box 4, folder 12, Gilpin Papers.

58. Jason Weems, Barnstorming the Prairies: How Aerial Vision Shaped the Midwest (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2015); Mark White, Macrocosm/Microcosm: Abstract Expressionism in the American Southwest (Norman, Okla.: Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art, 2015); Louise Siddons, Centering Modernism: J. Jay McVicker and Postwar American Art (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2018).

59. Newhall, Airborne Camera.

60. Newhall, Airborne Camera, 12.

61. Newhall, Airborne Camera, 9.

62. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 11–12.

63. Janet Catherine Berlo, “Navajo Cosmoscapes—Up, Down, Within,” American Art 25, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 11.

64. Kelli Carmean, Spider Woman Walks This Land: Traditional Cultural Properties and the Navajo Nation (Walnut Creek, Calif.: Altamira, 2002), 59.

65. Berlo, “Navajo Cosmoscapes,” 11; Carmean, Spider Woman, 57.

66. Wheelwright Museum of the American Indian, “Exhibitions: Will Wilson,” 2014, https://wheelwright.org/exhibitions/will-wilson/.

67. For an exploration of the history and implications of resource extraction on the Navajo Nation, including a consideration of Wilson’s project, see Michaela Rife, “Will Wilson and Jetsonorama: Confronting Resource Extraction in the Navajo Nation,” Seismopolite: Journal of Art and Politics 14 (2016), http://www.seismopolite.com/will-wilson-jetsonorama-confronting-resource-extraction-in-navajo-nation; and Alison Fields, “Memory and Diné Cultural Survival in Postapocalyptic Landscapes,” in Discordant Memories: Atomic Age Narratives and Visual Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2020), 171–93. More recently, Wilson has devised the series Connecting the Dots: For a Just Transition, which uses drone photography to interrogate abandoned uranium-contaminated landscapes across the Navajo Nation. I am grateful to Jacqueline Zoeller for initially calling my attention to the connection between this project and Gilpin’s aerial photography (Zoeller, pers. comm., October 6, 2022).

68. Will Wilson, “About,” accessed April 5, 2019, https://willwilson.photoshelter.com/about.

69. Wilson, “About.”

70. Will Wilson, “SAR Artist Talk by Will Wilson,” YouTube, 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-qCdZeG1EUs.

71. Gilpin to Ned Hatathli, May 6, 1964, box 50, folder 3, Gilpin Papers.

72. Gilpin to Annie Wauneka, February 7, 1966, box 50, folder 3, Gilpin Papers. Gilpin’s correspondence with Wardlaw throughout the publication process indicates that she consistently collected release forms, both related to and separate from the book project.

73. Gilpin to Robert Young, September 14, 1967, box 50, folder 4, Gilpin Papers.

74. Frank Wardlaw to Gilpin, December 15, 1967, box 50, folder 12, Gilpin Papers.

75. Gilpin to Mitchell Wilder, February 23, 1956, box 6, folder 11, Gilpin Papers.

76. Bradley G. Shreve, “We Are Born at a Time,” La Crónica de Nuevo México 86 (January 2011): 3.

77. Blatchford, “Religion of the People,” 176.

78. Blatchford comments on draft of The Enduring Navaho, box 52, folder 9, Gilpin Papers.

79. Blatchford also assisted Gilpin with her Navajo pronunciation guide (Gilpin to Robert W. Young, September 7, 1967, box 50, folder 12, Gilpin Papers).

80. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 61.

81. Navajo Indian Problem, 81.

82. Berlo, “Navajo Cosmoscapes,” 10–11.

83. Forster and Gilpin, Denizens, 125.

84. Mary Wheelwright and Hasteen Klah, Navajo Creation Myth: The Story of the Emergence (Santa Fe: Museum of Navajo Ceremonial Art, 1942), 84.

85. Barre Toelken, “The Hózhó Factor: The Logic of Navajo Healing,” in Healing Logics: Culture and Medicine in Modern Health Belief Systems, edited by Erika Brady (Denver: University Press of Colorado, 2001), 202.

86. Berlo, “Navajo Cosmoscapes,” 11.

87. Gilpin corresponded extensively with Billy Norton in 1963 about creating a sand painting that she could photograph specifically for the opening narrative of the Creation Story in The Enduring Navaho (box 7, folder 15, Gilpin Papers). It was delayed when Forster fell ill; ultimately, Gilpin decided not to include a ceremonial drawing in her opening chapter.

88. Gilpin to Barbara Spielman, January 31, 1968, box 50, folder 5, Gilpin Papers.

89. Carmean, Spider Woman, 64.

90. Sandweiss, Enduring Grace, 92; Gilpin to Margaret and Nat Owings, July 25, 1959, box 6, folder 24, Gilpin Papers.

91. Yazzie subsequently made large-scale oil paintings based on these motion blurs.

92. Steven J. Yazzie, “Drawing and Driving,” accessed November 15, 2021, http://yazziestudio.com/drawing-and-driving. Yazzie has since designed a new website, removing a lot of the text that used to accompany this project. The previous version is available at archive.org: https://web.archive.org/web/20200218123349/http://yazziestudio.com/drawing-and-driving/.

93. Steven J. Yazzie, pers. comm., Zoom, December 30, 2021.

94. Yazzie, pers. comm.

95. Yazzie, pers. comm.

96. “Navajo Artist Reclaims Monument Valley,” e-flux, January 25, 2007, https://www.e-flux.com/announcements/40685/navajo-artist-reclaims-monument-valley/.

97. Street View launched in just a handful of cities, but today you can also see street views of the roads that traverse Monument Valley.

98. Yazzie, pers. comm.

99. Harold Rosenberg, “The American Action Painters,” ARTNews, December 1952, 22.

100. A complete set of “Pictorial Lantern Slides of the Southwest” is in the Laura Gilpin Photograph Collection at the Denver Public Library, Denver, Colorado.

101. Gilpin to Nancy Newhall, May 30, 1957, box 6, folder 16, Gilpin Papers.

102. For a period source on the Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946, see Nancy Oestreich Lurie, “The Indian Claims Commission Act,” in “American Indians and American Life,” special issue, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 311 (May 1957): 56–70. For a comprehensive historical overview of the act, see David E. Wilkins, Hollow Justice: A History of Indigenous Claims in the United States (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2013).

103. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 187.

104. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 183.

105. Michelle Deakin, “Branch Returns to Her Navajo Roots,” Harvard Law Bulletin (Summer 2018): https://today.law.harvard.edu/feature/branch-returns-navajo-roots/.

106. Deakin, “Branch Returns to Her Navajo Roots.”

107. Norman M. Littell, “Reflections of a Tribal Attorney,” 1957 typescript, Beineke Library, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

108. Gilpin identified Littell, Father Berard Haile, Richard Van Valkenburgh, Dr. Hammond Sleight, Roscoe Wilmeth (who Gilpin mistakenly identified as Diné), and Maxwell Yazzie (Diné), who was the chairman of the Committee on Engineering for the Navajo Tribe. Four additional men in the photograph are unidentified.

109. Sam Ahkeah to Gilpin, March 3, 1954, box 5, folder 26, Gilpin Papers. Gilpin donated prints of the photographs she took while working with the board to the Navajo Tribal Council; Ahkeah wrote again a few months later to acknowledge their use as evidence in hearings that took place that September (Ahkeah to Gilpin, November 22, 1954, box 5, folder 26, Gilpin Papers). In further material support of her argument for Native self-determination, Gilpin’s presentations were often given as fundraisers: for the Association on Indian Affairs, with which she had been deeply involved for decades (“Laura Gilpin Presents Navaho Picture Story,” The New Mexican, June 22, 1954, clipping in scrapbook, box 65, Gilpin Papers), and for local communities like the pueblo of San Ildefonso (unidentified clipping dated March 4, 1962, “Laura Gilpin to Show ‘Navajo Land’ Slides as Benefit for Tewa Center Saturday Evening at San Ildefonso,” box 65, Gilpin Papers).

110. Gilpin to Sam Ahkeah, February 8, 1954, box 5, folder 28, Gilpin Papers.

111. Bill Donovan, “50 Years Ago: Tribe Wins Lawsuit over Lands Lost,” Navajo Times June 4, 2020, https://navajotimes.com/50years/50-years-ago-tribe-wins-lawsuit-over-lands-lost/.

112. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 183.

113. Lorraine Weir, “‘Time Immemorial’ and Indigenous Rights: A Genealogy and Three Case Studies (Calder, Van der Peet, Tsilhqot’in) from British Columbia,” Journal of Historical Sociology 26, no. 3 (September 2013): 383–411. Louisiana law: Civ. Code La. Art. 762; 2 Mart. (La.) 214; 7 La. 46; 3 Toullier, Dr. Civ. p. 410; Poth. Cent, note 244; 3 Bouv. Inst, note 3069, note. In the state of New Mexico, which now overlays a substantive part of Dinétah, the definition of time immemorial is similarly relative and has been inconsistently applied over time (Jane G. Printz, “Prescriptive Easement in New Mexico,” New Mexico Law Review 9, no. 2 [Summer 1979]: 393–401).

114. Paula Gunn Allen, “Lesbians in American Indian Cultures,” Conditions 7 (1981): 68.

115. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 186.

116. Amy Linn, “The Navajo Nation’s Horrendous Roads Keep Killing People and Holding Students Hostage, but Nothing Changes,” USC Center for Health Journalism, accessed January 24, 2022, https://centerforhealthjournalism.org/resources/lessons/navajo-nation-s-horrendous-roads-keep-killing-people-and-holding-students-hostage.

117. Putnam journal, 14–15, phase box 19, Gilpin Papers.

118. Putnam journal, 15.

119. John Brown Jr., “Gas Tax Paid but No Roads,” Letters to the Editor, Navajo Times, September 25, 1969, 2.

120. Amy Linn and Alysa Landry, “Rough Roads, Broken Promises on Navajo Nation,” Santa Fe New Mexican, April 11, 2019, https://www.santafenewmexican.com/news/local_news/rough-roads-broken-promises-on-navajo-nation/article_2d78807c-37c6-5f83-8ee1-d32d2fbdf232.html.

121. Linda Poon, “One Navajo 6th Grader’s Bumpy, Three-Hour School Commute,” Citylab, September 9, 2016, https://www.citylab.com/transportation/2016/09/students-rocky-bus-ride-lay-bare-the-disrepair-of-uss-tribal-roads/499328/.

122. Linn, “Navajo Nation.”

123. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 181.

124. John M. Roberts, Three Navaho Households: A Comparative Study in Small Group Culture, Reports of the Ramah Project No. 3, Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University 40, no. 3 (1951): 54.

125. Sally Noe, Greetings from Gallup: Six Decades of Route 66 (Gallup, NM: Gallup Downtown Development Group, 1991), 9.

126. Lesley Poling-Kempes, The Harvey Girls: Women Who Opened the West (New York: Paragon House, 1989).

127. Putnam journal, 17, phase box 19, Gilpin Papers. “Miss Colter” is Mary Colter, who worked exclusively for the Fred Harvey Company as an architect and designer from 1910 to 1948.

128. “Indian Trader Mike Kirk Credited for Success of Ceremonial Shows,” Gallup Independent, August 14, 1946.

129. Noe, Greetings from Gallup, 11.

130. Putnam journal, 17, phase box 19, Gilpin Papers.

131. Putnam journal, 17–18.

132. Putnam journal, 18.

133. Putnam journal.

134. Quoted in Sandweiss, Enduring Grace, 51.

135. Forster and Gilpin, Denizens, 97.

136. This passage is struck through on page 11 of a typescript that Forster created while preparing her letters for publication (box 57, Gilpin Papers).

137. Putnam journal, 26, phase box 19, Gilpin Papers.

138. Frances Northend Ferguson, “Navaho Drinking: Some Tentative Hypotheses,” Human Organization 27, no. 2 (Summer 1968): 159–67.

139. Gilpin to Mitchell Wilder, April 16, 1956, box 6, folder 11, Gilpin Papers.

140. Wilder to Gilpin, April 25, 1956, box 6, folder 13, Gilpin Papers.

141. Gilpin to Spielman, January 31, 1968, box 50, folder 13, Gilpin Papers.

142. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 176. Between 1832 and 1953, federal legislation prohibited the sale of alcohol to Native Americans.

143. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 174–76.

144. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 176.

145. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 176.

146. “GIC Growth Is Expected,” Navajo Times, July 30, 1970, 12.

147. Richard Nixon, “Special Message to the Congress on Indian Affairs,” July 8, 1970, archived at https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/special-message-the-congress-indian-affairs.

148. For more on self-determination in the 1940s and ’50s, see Peter Iverson, “Building toward Self-Determination: Plains and Southwestern Indians in the 1940s and 1950s,” Western Historical Quarterly 16, no. 2 (April 1985): 163–73.

149. For more on the politics of resource development in the Navajo Nation, see Andrew Needham, Power Lines: Phoenix and the Making of the Modern Southwest (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2014).

150. Ethelou Yazzie, ed., Navaho History, vol. 1 (Chinle, Ariz.: Navaho Community College Press, 1971), quoted in Susan Hegeman, “History, Ethnography, Myth: Some Notes on the ‘Indian-Centered’ Narrative,” Social Text 23 (Autumn–Winter 1989): 151.

151. Thomas Biolsi, “Imagined Geographies: Sovereignty, Indigenous Space, and American Indian Struggle,” American Ethnologist 32, no. 2 (2005): 240.

152. Goeman, “(Re)Mapping Indigenous Presence,” 300.

153. Belin, From the Belly of My Beauty, 11.

154. Mishuana Goeman, Mark My Words: Native Women Mapping Our Nations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013), 88.

155. “Firing of Herb Blatchford Arouses Gallup Area Indians; Hearing Soon,” Akwesasne Notes 4, no. 2 (March 1972): 12.

156. Lucy Moore, Into the Canyon: Seven Years in Navajo Country (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004), 142.

157. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 176.

158. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 5.

159. Washington Matthews, Navaho Legends (Cambridge, Mass.: The Riverside Press for the American Folk-Lore Society, 1897), 217n29. See chapter 5 for more on the translation of words related to gender and sexuality from Diné bizaad to English.

160. Gilpin, Enduring Navaho, 5.

161. Gilpin to Harriet Lyons, February 27, 1974, box 9, folder 19, Gilpin Papers.

162. Gilpin to Steinem, August 24, 1974, box 9, folder 19, Gilpin Papers.