Notes

1 EMule, “Disappearing Uploaders.”

2 The official website is offline, but a copy is archived at Wayback Machine, https://web.archive.org/web/20060818203724/http://www.filesharingweb.de/mediaWiki/index.php/English:List_of_Bandwidth_throttling_ISPs.

3 Vuze, “Bad ISPs.”

4 Roth, “The Dark Lord of Broadband Tries to Fix Comcast’s Image.”

5 Topolski (“FunChords”), “Comcast Is Using Sandvine to Manage P2P Connections.”

6 Schoen, “EFF Tests Agree with AP”; Schoen, “Comcast and BitTorrent”; Svensson, “Comcast Blocks Some Internet Traffic.”

7 Wu, “Network Neutrality, Broadband Discrimination.”

8 The harm, in other words, was a contractual issue, rather than emotional.

9 For those interested in following the legal, policy, and regulatory responses to net neutrality, see Marsden, Network Neutrality.

10 Bastian, Klieber, Livingood, Mills, Woundy, and Comcast, “RFC 6057: Comcast’s Protocol-Agnostic Congestion Management System.”

11 Beniger, The Control Revolution, 44–48.

12 Wiener, Cybernetics or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, 58–59.

13 Raymond, The New Hacker’s Dictionary, 141.

14 Eeten and Mueller, “Where Is the Governance in Internet Governance?”; Goldsmith and Wu, Who Controls the Internet?

15 The origin of the quote has been difficult to trace. Garson O’Toole of Quote Investigator (blog) found the first mention in 1992 (“The Future Has Arrived — It’s Just Not Evenly Distributed Yet,” http://quoteinvestigator.com/2012/01/24/future-has-arrived/).

16 Cloud services were estimated to grow from $41 billion in 2011 to $148.8 billion by 2014; Valentino-DeVries, “More Predictions on the Huge Growth of ‘Cloud Computing.’” Sony’s Playstation 4, a definitive media device, will stream games off cloud servers rather than requiring gamers to download copies of the game to their console.

17 CBC News, “ISPs Limit Access to CBC Download, Users Say.”

18 Van Schewick, “Network Neutrality and Quality of Service: What a Non-Discrimination Rule Should Look Like.”

19 BEREC and EC, A View of Traffic Management.

20 Hookway, Pandemonium.

21 Braman, “Posthuman Law.”

22 Suarez, DAEMON.

23 Boczkowski and Lievrouw, “Bridging STS and Communication Studies,” 951.

24 Wendy Hui Kyong Chun, “On ‘Sourcery,’” 320.

25 Chun, “On ‘Sourcery,’” 305.

26 Braman, “Posthuman Law.” See also Hookway, Pandemonium.

27 Braman, “From the Modern to the Postmodern,” 109.

28 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 25.

29 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 24.

30 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 20.

31 Boden, Mind As Machine, 898–99.

32 Crevier, AI, 40–41.

33 Selfridge, “Pandemonium,” 521.

34 Pandemonium was actually more than a proposal. Gerald Dinneen, a colleague of Selfridge, programmed a working version of Selfridge’s program to recognize Morse code. It could be considered one of the first artificial intelligence programs. See: Boden, Mind as Machine, 705; Selfridge and Neisser, “Pattern Recognition by Machine.”

35 Crevier, AI, 40.

36 Selfridge, “Pandemonium,” 516.

37 Selfridge, “Pandemonium,” 516.

38 Selfridge, “Pandemonium,” 516.

39 Selfridge, “Pandemonium,” 516.

40 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 31.

41 Boden, Mind as Machine, 902.

42 Quoted in Berry, Critical Theory and the Digital, 122.

43 Berry, Critical Theory and the Digital, 121–48.

44 Cormen, Leiserson, and Rivest, Introduction to Algorithms, 5.

45 Selfridge, “Pandemonium,” 520.

46 Kleinrock, Communication Nets.

47 Ford and Fulkerson, “Maximal Flow through a Network,” 399.

48 D. N. Rodowick, as quoted in Elmer, “A Diagram of Panoptic Surveillance,” 238.

49 Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 141.

50 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 24.

51 Roderick, “(Out of) Control Demons.”

52 Elmer, “Panopticon—Discipline—Control.”

53 While machines fill Deleuze’s writing, “Postscript on the Societies of Control” specifically uses the term mécanisme/mecanism alongside the French machine used for English terms like “war machine.” I use the term “mechanism” to refer to the application or processes of control.

54 Deleuze, “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” 6.

55 Galloway, Protocol.

56 Lash, “Power after Hegemony,” 71.

57 Kaplan, Wiley Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dictionary, 536.

58 Guenin, Könemann, and Tuncel, A Gentle Introduction to Optimization.

59 Chinneck, “Practical Optimization.”

60 Beniger, The Control Revolution, 296.

61 Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women, 164.

62 Kleinrock, “Principles and Lessons in Packet Communications,” 1320.

63 Selfridge was vague about whether Pandemonium had supervised or unsupervised learning.

64 Kleinrock, “On Flow Control in Computer Networks.”

65 Federal Communications Commission, Report and Order on Remand, Declaratory Ruling, and Order, 53.

66 Parks, “Infrastructure,” 106.

67 Sandvig, “The Internet as Infrastructure,” 100 (a nod to Harold Innis at the end).

68 Mirowski, Machine Dreams; Hayles, “Self-Reflexive Metaphors in Maxwell’s Demon and Shannon’s Choice.” See also Leff and Rex, Maxwell’s Demon.

69 Mirowski, Machine Dreams, 4–7.

70 Edwards, The Closed World; Hayles, How We Became Posthuman; Edwards, “Some Say the Internet Should Never Have Happened”; Mirowski, Machine Dreams; Pickering, “Cyborg History and the World War II Regime”; Galison, “The Ontology of the Enemy.”

71 For an excellent summary of the net-neutrality literature, see Löblich and Musiani, “Network Neutrality and Communication Research.”

72 For example, for possibilities of racial bias, see Pasquale, The Black Box Society, 40.

73 Striphas, The Late Age of Print.

74 Bucher, “Want to Be on the Top?”; Gillespie, “The Relevance of Algorithms.”

75 Ananny and Crawford, “A Liminal Press”; Anderson, “Towards a Sociology of Computational and Algorithmic Journalism”; Diakopoulos, “Algorithmic Accountability: On the Investigation of Black Boxes.”

76 Kushner, “The Freelance Translation Machine.”

77 Beer, “Power through the Algorithm?”; Lash, “Power after Hegemony.”

78 Gillespie, “The Relevance of Algorithms,” 167.

79 Bucher, “A Technicity of Attention”; Mager, “Algorithmic Ideology.”

80 Feuz, Fuller, and Stalder, “Personal Web Searching in the Age of Semantic Capitalism.”

81 For a more elaborate discussion on media and infrastructure that informs my own writing, see Parks and Starosielski, “Introduction.”

1 Haraway, “Manifesto for Cyborgs.”

2 Hayles, How We Became Posthuman, xiii–xiv.

3 For a proper discussion of his influence, see Waldrop, The Dream Machine.

4 Mayr, The Origins of Feedback Control; Galison, “The Ontology of the Enemy,” 261–62.

5 Mirowski, Machine Dreams, 46–54; Earman and Norton, “Exorcist XIV”; Georgescu-Roegen, “Entropy.”

6 Maxwell, Theory of Heat, 338.

7 Maxwell, Theory of Heat.

8 Hayles, “Self-Reflexive Metaphors,” 219.

9 I am particularly inspired by the first two chapters of Mirowski, Machine Dreams.

10 Hayles, “Self-Reflexive Metaphors,” 216.

11 Wiener, Cybernetics, 57.

12 Wiener, Cybernetics, 58.

13 Earman and Norton, “Exorcist XIV,” 455.

14 Mirowski, Machine Dreams, ch. 2.

15 Hayles, How We Became Posthuman, 12–13.

16 Wiener, Cybernetics, 125–26.

17 Hayles, “Print Is Flat, Code Is Deep,” 225.

18 Shannon, “A Mathematical Theory of Communication.”

19 Or the seas, in the case of John Cunningham Lilly; see Peters, The Marvelous Clouds, 64–65.

20 Artificial companionship is an old idea. Long before IBM’s Deep Blue became the world chess champion, a chess-playing automaton known as the Turk enchanted Europe and the United States in the late seventeenth century (before it was revealed that a human had been secretly moving the chess pieces); see Wood, Edison’s Eve. Before long, it would be computers treating people just like pawns in chess. In the 1820s, Charles Babbage developed mechanical machines to replace the mathematical work of calculating logarithmic tables then done by human computers, and these thinking machines could be seen to anticipate and later inspire the first digital computers; see Schaffer, “Babagge’s Intelligence.” However, Babbage’s difficulty in gaining attention meant the idea of artificial intelligence developed for a while in theoretical physics.

21 Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence.”

22 Shannon, “Programming a Computer for Playing Chess.”

23 Galison, “The Ontology of the Enemy.”

24 Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence.”

25 Kittler, Gramophone, Film, Typewriter, 17.

26 Wiener, Cybernetics, 58.

27 Shannon, “Programming a Computer for Playing Chess,” 256.

28 Hayles, “Self-Reflexive Metaphors,” 215–16; Mirowski, Machine Dreams, 28–29.

29 Hayles, “Self-Reflexive Metaphors,” 224.

30 Wiener, Cybernetics, 62.

31 Wiener, Cybernetics; Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings.

32 Mirowski, Machine Dreams, 58–68.

33 Wiener, Cybernetics, 58.

34 Oxford English Dictionary, “Metastable.”

35 Wiener, Cybernetics, 58.

36 Abbate, Recoding Gender; Light, “When Computers Were Women”; Hicks, Programmed Inequity.

37 Waldrop, The Dream Machine.

38 Kita, “J.C.R. Licklider’s Vision for the IPTO”; Lukasik, “Why the ARPANET Was Built”; Waldrop, The Dream Machine.

39 The IRE was the predecessor to the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IRE merged with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1963 to become the IEEE. Transactions on Information Theory became part of the IEEE Transactions on Information Theory journal, still published today. It remains high ranking among the IEEE journals and has published groundbreaking work, such as an early description of Google’s PageRank algorithm.

40 Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” 4.

41 Light, “When Computers Were Women”; Schaffer, “Babagge’s Intelligence.”

42 Simon, “Reflections on Time Sharing,” 43.

43 Wiener, Cybernetics, 44.

44 Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” 5.

45 Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” 3.

46 Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” 7.

47 Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” 7.

48 Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” 4–5.

49 For a more comprehensive history, see: Aspray, “An Annotated Bibliography of Secondary Sources on the History of Software”; Campbell-Kelly and Aspray, Computer; Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing; Randell, “An Annotated Bibliography of the Origins of Digital Computers.”

50 Edwards, The Closed World; Jacobs, “SAGE Overview”; Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology; Redmond and Smith, From Whirlwind to MITRE; Valley, “How the SAGE Development Began.”

51 Conventional thinking at the time would have used electromechanical computers to run the SAGE programs. Digital computers, as Paul Edwards makes clear in The Closed World, were not a logical next step for defense research. Electromechanical computers had been battle tested during World War II. Scientists and engineers sold their experimental research on digital computing to the U.S. Air Force with the promise that adaptable machines would be able to track and intercept incoming enemy missiles in a complex battleground. Researchers at MIT positioned digital computing as the answer to the real-time problem. Engineers argued digital computing could be reprogrammed to adapt to varied inputs and situations, whereas the physical encoding of a program in the gears and switches of an analog machine prevents easy adaptation. Digital researchers became convinced that these analog machines operated with too much imprecision and delay for a real-time defense system. Digital computing, in contrast, offered the needed precision and instant response time. The campaign proved successful, and SAGE move forward into digital computers, foreclosing electromechanical research. Digital computing soon eclipsed electromechanical systems as the dominant trajectory in computing.

52 Edwards, The Closed World, 104.

53 Jacobs, “SAGE Overview”; Valley, “How the SAGE Development Began.”

54 Campbell-Kelly, From Airline Reservations to Sonic the Hedgehog, 41–45; Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, 250; Copeland, Mason, and Mckenney, “SABRE.”

55 Simon, “Reflections on Time Sharing,” 43–44.

56 Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, 154–58.

57 Lee, “Claims to the Term ‘Time-Sharing.’”

58 In early 1959, the computer would have been called an IBM 709, but later in the year, the model number changed to 7090. The number here refers to the later model number, though both versions of the number have been used in descriptions of the CTSS.

59 Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology, 76–98.

60 Lee, McCarthy, and Licklider, “The Beginnings at MIT.”

61 Though the internet and the telephone, especially AT&T, are often historically pitted against one another, the Supervisor can be seen as a digital solution to earlier electromechanical attempts to intensify the multiple messages that could be carried by one telegraph wire. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone while trying to create a harmonic multiplexer for telegram signals.

62 Corbato et al., Compatible Time-Sharing System.

63 Fevolden, “The Best of Both Worlds?”

64 Beranek, “Roots of the Internet,” 56–60; Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology, 86.

65 Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology, 104–8.

66 Parks and Starosielski, “Introduction,” 4.

67 Edwards, “Infrastructure and Modernity,” 187.

68 Castells, The Rise of the Network Society, 412.

69 Galloway and Thacker, “Protocol, Control, and Networks.”

70 Numerous perspectives have attempted to describe the current temporal conditions and how these conditions endure through practices or technologies. A few in-depth reviews do exist on approaches to time and society: Adam, Time and Social Theory; Adam, “Time”; Abbott, Time Matters; May and Thrift, TimeSpace; Brose, “An Introduction towards a Culture of Non-Simultaneity?”; Hörning, Ahrens, and Gerhard, “Do Technologies Have Time?”

71 See Williams, Gilles Deleuze’s Philosophy of Time.

72 Mumford, Technics and Civilization, 14.

73 Carey, Communication as Culture, 157.

74 Carey, Communication as Culture, 168.

75 Lewis, Flash Boys.

76 Sharma, In the Meantime, 9.

77 Corbato et al., Compatible Time-Sharing System.

78 Take Our Word for It, “Sez You.”

79 Edwards, “Infrastructure and Modernity,” 188.

80 Foucault, “Truth and Power,” 133.

81 Massumi, “Translator’s Note”; Negri, The Savage Anomaly.

82 Williams, Keywords, 72.

83 Acland, Swift Viewing; Jowett, Jarvie, and Fuller, Children and the Movies; Lippmann, Public Opinion.

84 Beniger, The Control Revolution; Yates, Control through Communication.

85 Edwards, “Infrastructure and Modernity”; Star, “The Ethnography of Infrastructure”; Winner, The Whale and the Reactor.

86 Carey, Communication as Culture; Innis, The Bias of Communication.

87 Yates, Control through Communication, xvi.

88 Cf. Guillory, “The Memo and Modernity.”

89 Beniger, The Control Revolution, 8.

90 Quoted in Guins, Edited Clean Version, 6.

91 Guins, Edited Clean Version, 7.

92 Zittrain, The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It.

93 Deleuze, “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” 4.

94 Burroughs, “The Limits of Control,” 38.

95 Beniger, The Control Revolution; Carey, Communication as Culture.

96 Galloway and Thacker, The Exploit.

97 McCormick, “4.6 Million Snapchat Phone Numbers and Usernames Leaked”; Wortham, “Snapchat.”

98 Deleuze, “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” 4.

99 Deleuze, “On Gilbert Simondon,” 87.

100 Non-synchronous communication resembles what Manuel Castells calls “timeless time,” which he problematizes as a global force that perturbs local times (The Rise of the Network Society, 464–68).

1 Davies, “Report on a Visit to USA,” 7.

2 Abbate, Inventing the Internet; Waldrop, The Dream Machine; Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology.

3 Greenberger, Computers and the World of the Future, 236.

4 Hu, A Prehistory of the Cloud.

5 Lukasik, “Why the ARPANET Was Built,” 4–6.

6 Kita, “J. C. R. Licklider’s Vision for the IPTO”; Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology, 26–29.

7 Licklider, “Memorandum.”

8 Kleinrock, “An Early History of the ARPANET”; Leiner et al., “The Past and Future History of the Internet”; Roberts, “The Evolution of Packet Switching.”

9 See Wiener’s comments in Greenberger, Computers and the World of the Future, 21–26.

10 Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 1–2.

11 O’Neill, “The Role of ARPA in the Development of the ARPANET, 1961–1972,” 77.

12 Frank, Kahn, and Kleinrock, “Computer Communication Network Design,” 255.

13 Waldrop, The Dream Machine, 223–24.

14 Licklider, “Memorandum.”

15 Licklider, “Memorandum.”

16 Kleinrock, “An Early History of the ARPANET,” 28.

17 Marill and Roberts, “Toward a Cooperative Network,” 426.

18 Marill and Roberts, “Toward a Cooperative Network,” 426.

19 Paulsen, “When Switches Became Programs.”

20 Greene and Brown, “Route Control in AUTOVON Electronic Switching Centers.”

21 Galison, “War against the Center.”

22 Marill and Roberts, “Toward a Cooperative Network,” 428.

23 Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer, 163–68.

24 Roberts, “Multiple Computer Networks and Intercomputer Communication,” 2.

25 I can find no evidence connecting the term “IMP” with the mythical imp.

26 Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology, 164.

27 Roberts, “Multiple Computer Networks and Intercomputer Communication,” 4.

28 Kleinrock, “Principles and Lessons in Packet Communications,” 1328.

29 See Chun, “Programmability.”

30 Roberts, “Multiple Computer Networks and Intercomputer Communication,” 4.

31 Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 37–38; O’Neill, “The Role of ARPA in the Development of the ARPANET,” 78.

32 Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 23.

33 Davies, “Report on a Visit to USA.”

34 Davies, “Interview,” 3.

35 Davies, “Proposal for a Digital Communication Network,” 3.

36 Davies, “Proposal for a Digital Communication Network,” 13.

37 Davies et al., “A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at Remote Terminals,” 1.

38 Davies, “Proposal for a Digital Communication Network,” 1–2.

39 Davies, “Proposal for a Digital Communication Network,” 5.

40 Davies, “Proposal for a Digital Communication Network,” 9.

41 Davies, “Proposal for a Digital Communication Network,” 8.

42 Davies et al., “A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at Remote Terminals,” 3.

43 Here is another example of how packet-switching communication operationalized the breakdown between humans and machines. Packets were the standard unit of digital information for either humans or machines.

44 Davies et al., “A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at Remote Terminals,” 8.

45 Mirowski and Nik-Khah, The Knowledge We Have Lost in Information.

46 Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” 5.

47 Mirowski, Machine Dreams.

48 Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology, 167.

49 Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 80–81.

50 U.S. Army, “Request for Quotations—DAHC15 69 Q 0002,” 27.

51 Kleinrock, Communication Nets, 4–9; Kleinrock, “Optimum Bribing for Queue Position.”

52 Kleinrock, “An Early History of the ARPANET,” 26–28.

53 Kleinrock, Communication Nets, 91–94. It is unclear how much Kleinrock’s theory informed the responses to the RFQ. ARPANET’s design tended to be framed as a matter of system engineering (Kahn, “Interview”). Packets also did not necessarily follow the same stochastic model, since they were explicitly designed to increase network activity. Kleinrock, for his part, would continue to administer ARPANET’s Network Measurement Center (NMC) and used this vantage point to research new forms of flow control in the new digital network.

54 Davies, “Report on a Visit to USA,” 3.

55 Kleinrock, “On Flow Control in Computer Networks,” 1.

56 Dantzig, Fulkerson, and Johnson, “Solution of a Large-Scale Traveling-Salesman Problem.”

57 Wilkinson, “Theories for Toll Traffic Engineering in the U.S.A.”

58 U.S. Army, “Request for Quotations—DAHC15 69 Q 0002,” 22.

59 Kleinrock, “Principles and Lessons in Packet Communications.”

60 U.S. Army, “Request for Quotations—DAHC15 69 Q 0002,” 34.

61 Frank, Kahn, and Kleinrock, “Computer Communication Network Design,” 5.

62 Bolt, Beranek, and Newman Inc., Report No. 1763: Initial Design for Interface Message Processors for the ARPA Computer Network, 1–2.

63 Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology, 172–76.

64 Bolt, Beranek, and Newman Inc., Report No. 1763, III-30.

65 All without visiting a pipeline. Frank commented: “I had heard the word pipeline and I had seen pipes maybe on TV or certainly in the movies. I had never actually visited an oil field or anything like that” (“Interview,” 3–4).

66 Frank compares ARPANET’s topological problem to other known problems in computer science, including the Traveling Salesman problem, survivability, the design of telephone networks, and pipelines.

67 Frank and NAC, First Annual Report, 4.

68 The model assumed a traffic requirement of five hundred bits per second for all nodes, with an additional five hundred bits per second added to high-traffic nodes at the University of Illinois, the computer graphics research at the University of Utah, the RAND Corporation, the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Princeton, and atmospheric research at the National Center for Atmospheric Research and the National Weather Service.

69 Frank and NAC, First Annual Report, 3.

70 Davies, “The Control of Congestion in Packet-Switching Networks.”

71 Price, “Simulation of Packet-Switching Networks Controlled on Isarithmic Principles,” 44.

72 Davies, “The Control of Congestion in Packet-Switching Networks,” 548.

73 Davies also criticized an early version of end-to-end congestion control employed by ARPANET: refusing connections to high-volume connections or at times of congestion. Davies found that this managed the wrong part of the problem, focusing on the link and not the data rate. Blocking a connection, I suppose, seemed a crude solution and one that avoided the more complex questions of active flow control that intrigued Davies in the paper.

74 Cohen-Almagor, Confronting the Internet’s Dark Side, 21n18.

75 Cerf and Kahn, “A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication”; Kleinrock, “Principles and Lessons in Packet Communications”; Kleinrock, “An Early History of the ARPANET”; Leiner et al., “The Past and Future History of the Internet”; Abbate, Inventing the Internet; Waldrop, The Dream Machine; Russell and Schafer, “In the Shadow of ARPANET and Internet”; Russell, Open Standards and the Digital Age.

76 Braman, “Laying the Path”; Braman, The Framing Years; Braman, “The Geopolitical vs. the Network Political.”

77 Braman, “Laying the Path,” 70.

78 Braman, “Laying the Path,” 79.

79 Braman, “The Framing Years.”

80 Frank, “Interview,” 14.

81 Kleinrock, “An Early History of the ARPANET,” 30.

82 Sharma, In the Meantime, 9.

83 Mackenzie, Transductions, 123.

84 Gerovitch, “InterNyet.”

85 Acland, “Harold Innis, Cultural Policy, and Residual Media,” 177.

1 See, for example, Abbate, Inventing the Internet; Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology; Salus, Casting the Net; Waldrop, The Dream Machine; Russell, Open Standards and the Digital Age; Russell and Schafer, “In the Shadow of ARPANET and Internet”; Mailland and Driscoll, Minitel.

2 Licklider and Taylor, “The Computer as a Communication Device,” 37.

3 Licklider and Taylor, “The Computer as a Communication Device,” 37.

4 Elmer, “A Diagram of Panoptic Surveillance.”

5 Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 141.

6 Galloway, Protocol, 32–33.

7 Galloway, Protocol, 39.

8 Galloway, Protocol, 30.

9 Walden, “The Arpanet IMP Program,” 29.

10 Brim and Carpenter, “Middleboxes.”

11 Bellovin and Cheswick, “Network Firewalls,” 50.

12 Orman, “The Morris Worm.”

13 Avolio, “Firewalls and Internet Security”; Ingham and Forrest, “Network Firewalls.”

14 Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 83–90.

15 Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 66–68.

16 Carr, Crocker, and Cerf, “HOST-HOST Communication Protocol in the ARPA Network.”

17 Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 78–81.

18 Carr, Crocker, and Cerf, “HOST-HOST Communication Protocol in the ARPA Network,” 592.

19 Carr, Crocker, and Cerf, “HOST-HOST Communication Protocol in the ARPA Network,” 592.

20 Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology, 183–85.

21 Cerf and Kahn, “A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication,” 646.

22 Gillespie, “Engineering a Principle.”

23 Campbell-Kelly, “Data Communications at the National Physical Laboratory (1965–1975).”

24 Russell and Schafer, “In the Shadow of ARPANET and Internet.”

25 Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 124.

26 Rybczynski, “Commercialization of Packet Switching.”

27 Mathison, Roberts, and Walker, “The History of Telenet.”

28 Cerf and Kahn, “A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication,” 641.

29 Mills, “The Fuzzball,” 115.

30 Mills, “The Fuzzball.”

31 Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 17.

32 Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 41–46.

33 Dourish, “Protocols, Packets, and Proximity.”

34 A CIDR report that Geoff Huston maintains (http://www.cidr-report.org/as2.0/) produced this count of autonomous systems on March 13, 2018.

35 Dix, “Router Man.”

36 Bunnell and Brate, Making the Cisco Connection, 2–7; Carey, “A Start-Up’s True Tale.”

37 Synergy Research Group, Cisco’s Dominant Share of Switching & Routers Holds Steady.

38 Murphy, “A Critical History of the Internet”; Driscoll, “Hobbyist Inter-Networking and the Popular Internet Imaginary”; Carey and Elton, “The Other Path to the Web”; Kelty, Two Bits.

39 Licklider and Taylor, “The Computer as a Communication Device,” 22.

40 Licklider and Taylor, “The Computer as a Communication Device,” 22.

41 Licklider and Taylor, “The Computer as a Communication Device,” 26.

42 Licklider and Taylor, “The Computer as a Communication Device,” 37.

43 Licklider and Taylor, “The Computer as a Communication Device,” 39.

44 Mansell, Imagining the Internet.

45 Quarterman and Hoskins, “Notable Computer Networks,” 958.

46 Grier and Campbell, “A Social History of Bitnet and Listserv”; Quarterman and Hoskins, “Notable Computer Networks,” 953–54; Shade, “Computer Networking in Canada.”

47 Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, 298–99.

48 Farrand and Carrapico, “Networked Governance and the Regulation of Expression on the Internet”; Gillespie, “The Relevance of Algorithms”; Pfaffenberger, “If I Want It, It’s OK.”

49 Driscoll, “Hobbyist Inter-Networking and the Popular Internet Imaginary”; Driscoll, “Social Media’s Dial-Up Ancestor.”

50 Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, 298.

51 Murphy, “A Critical History of the Internet”; Senft, “Bulletin-Board Systems”; Shade, “Roughing It in the Electronic Bush”; Scott, BBS: The Documentary; Lungu and Stachniak, “Following TRACE.”

52 Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture.

53 Quoted in Sterling, The Hacker Crackdown. 300.

54 Barbrook and Cameron, “Californian Ideology.”

55 Rheingold, The Virtual Community, xx.

56 Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture.

57 Beyer and McKelvey, “You Are Not Welcome among Us”; Dyer-Witheford, “E-Capital and the Many-headed Hydra.”

58 Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 56–68.

59 Land, “Flying the Black Flag,” 186.

60 Sterling, The Hacker Crackdown, 77.

61 Kline, Dyer-Witheford, and de Peuter, Digital Play, 209–17; Tetzlaff, “Yo-Ho-Ho and a Server of Warez.”

62 Bush, “FidoNet”; Murphy, “A Critical History of the Internet,” 35–36; Shade, “Roughing It in the Electronic Bush.”

63 Gehl, “Power/Freedom on the Dark Web.”

64 For a few examples see: Abbate, Inventing the Internet; Abbate, “Privatizing the Internet”; Ceruzzi, “The Internet before Commercialization”; Latham, “Networks, Information, and the Rise of the Global Internet”; Moschovitis, History of the Internet; Murphy, “A Critical History of the Internet”; Norberg and O’Neill, Transforming Computer Technology; Salus, Casting the Net.

65 For a detailed discussion, see Russell, Open Standards and the Digital Age.

66 Day, Patterns in Network Architecture, xix.

67 The National Science Foundation had already begun to commercialize portions of its network operations. Janet Abbate wrote that the “NSF saw commercial operation of the Internet as a means to an end: a robust, high-speed, economically sustainable information infrastructure for scientists” (Abbate, “Privatizing the Internet,” 10). NSFNET contracted out network service to MERIT, a consortium of the State of Michigan Strategic Fund, IBM, and MCI. IBM and MCI asked for a commercial service to recuperate their investment in the NSF backbone (Cook, “NSFnet Privatization”). The NSF agreed, and in June 1990, the newly formed Advanced Network Services (ANS) began providing the network backbone for the internet, subcontracted by MERIT. The move merged the commercial traffic that took place on ANS with the academic traffic of ARPA.

68 Shah and Kesan, “The Privatization of the Internet’s Backbone Network,” 96–103.

69 Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 154.

70 Peters, How Not to Network a Nation.

71 Gillespie, Wired Shut.

1 Cisco Systems, Cisco SCE 8000 Service Control Engine.

2 Synergy Research Group, Cisco’s Dominant Share of Switching & Routers Holds Steady.

3 Grand View Research, Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) Market Analysis.

4 Grand View Research, Global Software Defined Networking (SDN) Market Analysis.

5 Dave Walden, a computer scientist who worked on the Interface Message Processor (IMP) at Bolt, Beranek, and Newman Inc. (BBN), has taken great steps to preserve the history of the IMP’s development and even digitize its code. Walden listed at least fourteen different major updates of the IMP code from 1969 to 1989. He has also released an important archive of BBN documents used throughout this book. I’m hopeful that others will follow Walden’s lead and elaborate the history of BBN and its IMPs. I thank him for clarifying the operations of the IMP to me. See Walden, “The Arpanet IMP Program.”

6 Heart et al., “The Interface Message Processor,” 559.

7 DeNardis, Protocol Politics, 6.

8 Braman, “Laying the Path.”

9 DeNardis, Protocol Politics.

10 Bendrath, “The End of the Net as We Know It?” 4; DeNardis, “A History of Internet Security”; Ingham and Forrest, “Network Firewalls.”

11 Julkunen and Chow, “Enhance Network Security with Dynamic Packet Filter,” 269.

12 Elmer and Opel, “Pre-Empting Panoptic Surveillance”; Massumi, “Potential Politics and the Primacy of Preemption.”

13 ISC8 Inc., “ISC8 Acquires Key Assets of Bivio Networks.”

14 Finnie and Heavy Reading, ISP Traffic Management Technologies.

15 Parsons, Deep Packet Inspection in Perspective; Bendrath and Mueller, “The End of the Net as We Know It?”

16 Grand View Research, Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) Market Analysis.

17 Van Dijck, “Datafication, Dataism and Dataveillance.”

18 Finnie and Heavy Reading, ISP Traffic Management Technologies, 8.

19 Cisco Systems, Administration Guide vA1(7).

20 Bell Aliant, “Reply Comments on Public Notice 2008-19.”

21 Ingham and Forrest, “Network Firewalls,” 33.

22 Kaiser, “HTML5 and Video Streaming.”

23 Kafka, “How One Company Figured Out How Many People Watch Netflix’s New Shows.”

24 Goodin, “It Wasn’t Easy.”

25 Fichtner, “Bye Bye OpenDPI.”

26 Finnie and Heavy Reading, ISP Traffic Management Technologies.

27 Anderson, “Encrypted and Obfuscated?”

28 Le and But, Bittorrent Traffic Classification, 3.

29 Williamson, “A Revolutionary New Approach.”

30 Heart et al., “The Interface Message Processor,” 551.

31 Saisei Networks, “Products.”

32 Sprenger, The Politics of Micro-Decisions.

33 Sandvig, “Network Neutrality Is the New Common Carriage.”

34 Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 397–408.

35 Finnie and Heavy Reading, ISP Traffic Management Technologies, 6.

36 Electronic Privacy Information Center, “Deep Packet Inspection and Privacy”; Federal Trade Commission, Protecting Consumer Privacy in an Era of Rapid Change; Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada, Deep Packet Inspection Essay Project; European Commission, “Telecoms”; Parsons, “The Politics of Deep Packet Inspection.”

37 McStay, “Profiling Phorm”; Kuehn and Mueller, Profiling the Profilers.

38 Paul, “Canadian ISP Tests Injecting Content into Web Pages.”

39 Mayer, “How Verizon’s Advertising Header Works.”

40 Varadhan, Request for Comments.

41 Heart et al., “The Interface Message Processor,” 555.

42 Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 355.

43 Heart et al., “The Interface Message Processor,” 555.

44 McQuillan, “The Birth of Link-State Routing,” 68.

45 McQuillan, “The Birth of Link-State Routing,” 69.

46 McQuillan, “The Birth of Link-State Routing,” 69.

47 McQuillan, “The Birth of Link-State Routing,” 70.

48 McQuillan, “The Birth of Link-State Routing,” 69.

49 McQuillan, “The Birth of Link-State Routing”; McQuillan et al., “Improvements in the Design and Performance of the ARPA Network.”

50 Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 430.

51 Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 428.

52 Cisco Systems, What Is Administrative Distance?

53 BIRD describes itself as “a non-interactive program running on background which does the dynamic part of Internet routing, that is it communicates with other routers, calculates routing tables and send[s] them to the [operating system] which does the actual packet forwarding” (Filip et al., “The BIRD Internet Routing Daemon Project”). It is beginning to be installed in the internet. A 2016 crowd-funding campaign, for example, raised 857 percent over its goal, netting $1,139,344 to build a high-performance home router that uses BIRD (CZ.NIC, “Turris Omnia”).

54 Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 429.

55 Kleinrock, Communication Nets.

56 Davies, “Proposal for a Digital Communication Network,” 7–8.

57 Heart et al., “The Interface Message Processor,” 560.

58 Van Schewick, Internet Architecture and Innovation, 85.

59 Kleinrock, “An Early History of the ARPANET,” 34–35.

60 Kleinrock, Communication Nets, 7.

61 Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 402.

62 Duffy, “Cisco’s IOS vs. Juniper’s JUNOS.”

63 Cisco Systems, Cisco IOS Quality of Service Solutions Configuration Guide, Release 12.2.

64 Cisco Systems, Cisco Wide Area Application Services Configuration Guide (Software Version 5.0.1), Appendix A: “Predefined Optimization Policy.”

65 Cisco Systems, Cisco Wide Area Application Services Configuration Guide (Software Version 5.0.1), Appendix A: “Predefined Optimization Policy.”

66 Allot Communications, “VideoClass.”

67 Openwave Mobility, “Openwave Mobility First to Use Quality-Aware Optimization.”

68 Huston, ISP Survival Guide; Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 424.

69 Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 409–11.

70 Marques et al., “An Analysis of Quality of Service Architectures,” 17.

71 Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 412–14.

72 Paterson, “Bandwidth Is Political,” 185–89; Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 415–17; Paterson, “End User Privacy and Policy-Based Networking.”

73 Rosen, Viswanathan, and Callon, RFC 3031.

74 Finnie and Heavy Reading, ISP Traffic Management Technologies, 12.

75 Grand View Research, Global Software Defined Networking (SDN) Market Analysis.

76 Feamster, Rexford, and Zegura, “The Road to SDN.”

77 Juniper Networks, “NorthStar WAN SDN Network Controller.”

78 Juniper Networks, “NorthStar Controller Web User Interface Guide,” 58.

79 Van Schewick, Internet Architecture and Innovation.

80 This ambiguity has led to the existence of both broad and narrow versions of the E2E principle, according to Barbara van Schewick. The narrow definition allows for IMPs and their descendants to have some influence over networking, including, for example, some error control between internet daemons. The broad definition is a reinterpretation of the principle expressed by the authors in an article from 1998. There they state that “specific application-level functions usually cannot and preferably should not, be built into the lower levels of the system—the core of the network” (Reed, Saltzer, and Clark, quoted in van Schewick, Internet Architecture and Innovation, 67). Van Schewick points out that both definitions compromise on network functionality. The design rules of the broad version, van Schewick writes, “reflect the decision to prioritize long-term system evolvability, application autonomy and reliability over short-term performance optimizations” (Internet Architecture and Innovation, 79). Encoding functions in the core prevented the system from adapting due to the cost and difficulty of changing core networking software. However, this flexibility degrades network performance since daemons lack the intelligence to optimize traffic and control for errors. Therefore, the network has less intelligence but more adaptability.

81 Saltzer, Reed, and Clark, “End-to-End Arguments in System Design,” 287.

82 Saltzer, Reed, and Clark, “End-to-End Arguments in System Design,” 284–85.

83 Isenberg, “The Dawn of the ‘Stupid Network.’”

84 Benkler, The Wealth of Networks; van Schewick, Internet Architecture and Innovation; Zittrain, The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It.

85 Zittrain, The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It, 31.

86 Winseck, “Netscapes of Power,” 805.

87 For a comparative review of this case, see Mueller and Asghari, “Deep Packet Inspection and Bandwidth Management.”

88 Van Schewick, Internet Architecture and Innovation, 260–61.

89 Dyer-Witheford, “E-Capital and the Many-headed Hydra.”

90 Gillespie, “Engineering a Principle”; Sandvig, “Shaping Infrastructure and Innovation on the Internet.”

91 Gillespie, “Engineering a Principle,” 443.

92 Wu, “When Code Isn’t Law.”

93 Oram, Peer-to-Peer; Beyer and McKelvey, “You Are Not Welcome among Us.”

94 DerEngel, Hacking the Cable Modem, 36–37.

95 Van Beijnum, “Meet DOCSIS, Part 1.”

96 Cisco Systems, Cisco IOS CMTS Cable Software Configuration Guide, Release 12.2SC.

97 These numbers come from the internet archive’s records for Comcast. The link is available at The Wayback Machine Internet Archive: https://web.archive.org/web/20060621113235/http://www.comcast.com/Benefits/CHSIDetails/Slot3PageOne.asp.

98 DerEngel, Hacking the Cable Modem, 66–68.

99 DerEngel, Hacking the Cable Modem.

100 Comcast mentions only that it had not yet adopted DOCSIS 3.0.

101 Emule, “Protocol Obfuscation.”

102 Comcast included a copy of its brochure as part of its submission to the FCC.

103 Sandvine Inc., Sandvine Essentials Training (SET): Module 1, 49.

104 Bangeman, “Comcast Tweaks Terms of Service in Wake of Throttling Uproar.”

105 Sandvine Inc., Sandvine Policy Traffic Switch (PTS 8210), 1.

106 Sandvine also mentioned that its PTS 8210 could provide advertising solutions. Though Sandvine does not elaborate, the link between DPI and advertising resembles the behavioral advertising discussed by Andrew McStay in “Profiling Phorm.”

107 Sandvine Inc., Meeting the Challenge of Today’s Evasive P2P Traffic, 4.

108 Sandvine Inc., Meeting the Challenge of Today’s Evasive P2P Traffic, 6.

109 Sandvine Inc., Meeting the Challenge of Today’s Evasive P2P Traffic, 7.

110 In Canada, these are known as economic traffic management practices.

111 Sandvine Inc., Meeting the Challenge of Today’s Evasive P2P Traffic, 7.

112 Sandvine Inc., Meeting the Challenge of Today’s Evasive P2P Traffic, 12.

113 The diagram also included a standby router, presumably as a fail-safe, though it is not discussed in the filing.

114 Comcast, Attachment A, 8.

115 Comcast language closely resembles a report prepared by Sandvine in 2004 about the BitTorrent protocol. Sandvine described unidirectional activity as “seeding” and recommended managing this type of traffic as an effective way to cope with the popularity of BitTorrent (Sandvine Inc., Session Management: BitTorrent Protocol).

116 Comcast, Attachment A, 8.

117 Comcast, Attachment A, 9–10.

118 Comcast, Attachment A, 10.

119 Eckersley, von Lohmann, and Schoen, “Packet Forgery by ISPs”; Schoen, “Detecting Packet Injection.”

120 United States Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation, In re: Comcast Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Transmission Contract Legislation, Case No. 2:08-md-01992 (E.D. Pa., 2008).

121 Eckersley, von Lohmann, and Schoen, “Packet Forgery by ISPs.”

122 Wu, “Network Neutrality, Broadband Discrimination.”

123 Comcast, Attachment B, 14.

124 Comcast, Attachment B, 8.

125 Comcast, Attachment B, 12.

126 Paine, “50 Shades of Net Neutrality Is Here.”

127 Paine, “50 Shades of Net Neutrality Is Here.”

128 Paine, “50 Shades of Net Neutrality Is Here.”

129 Taylor, The People’s Platform.

130 Aria Networks, “Aria Networks and TierOne Announce OEM Partnership.”

131 Aria Networks, “Self-Optimising Networks.”

132 Pasquale, The Black Box Society.

133 Pasquale, The Black Box Society, 8.

134 Pasquale, The Black Box Society, 9.

135 Bucher, “Want to Be on the Top?”; Gillespie, “The Relevance of Algorithms”; Barocas, Hood, and Ziewitz, “Governing Algorithms”; Boyd and Crawford, “Critical Questions for Big Data.”

136 Pasquale, The Black Box Society; Poon, “From New Deal Institutions to Capital Markets.”

137 Gillespie, “Algorithms, Clickworkers, and the Befuddled Fury around Facebook Trends”; Manjoo, “Facebook’s Bias Is Built-In, and Bears Watching.”

138 Amoore, The Politics of Possibility, 169.

139 Amoore, The Politics of Possibility, 169.

140 Amoore, The Politics of Possibility, 169.

141 Amoore, The Politics of Possibility, 156.

142 Galison, “The Ontology of the Enemy,” 266.

143 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 25.

144 Rogers Communications, Comment on Public Notice 2008–19.

145 McKelvey, “Ends and Ways”; van Schewick, Internet Architecture and Innovation.

146 Marquis-Boire et al., Planet Blue Coat; Senft et al., Internet Filtering in a Failed State.

147 Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), “Partners.”

148 Procera Networks, PacketLogic Policy and Charging Control.

1 Starosielski, “Fixed Flow.”

2 Parks and Starosielski, Signal Traffic.

3 Alexander, “Rage against the Machine,” 19.

4 Bucher, “The Algorithmic Imaginary.”

5 Marshini Chetty et al., “You’re Capped.”

6 Clough, “The Affective Turn.”

7 See Gregg and Seigworth, The Affect Theory Reader; Hillis, Paasonen, and Petit, Networked Affect.

8 Clough, “The Affective Turn,” 1.

9 Paasonen, Hillis, and Petit, “Introduction: Networks of Transmission,” 1.

10 Mackenzie, Wirelessness, 5.

11 However, Mackenzie stepped back from linking these feelings with control, as he argued wirelessness brings “something irreducible to systems of control” (Wirelessness, 213).

12 Diakopoulos, “Algorithmic Accountability.”

13 Massumi, The Power at the End of the Economy, 29.

14 Williams, Marxism and Literature, 132.

15 Williams, Marxism and Literature, 132.

16 Clough, “The Affective Turn,” 2.

17 Papacharissi, Affective Publics, 21.

18 Armitage and Roberts, “Chronotopia.”

19 Armitage and Graham, “Dromoeconomics.”

20 Tiessen, “High-Frequency Trading and the Centering of the (Financial) Periphery.”

21 Mosco, The Digital Sublime.

22 Crary, 24/7, 124.

23 Comcast, “The Advantages of High Speed Internet.”

24 Armitage and Graham, “Dromoeconomics,” 112.

25 Crogan, “Theory of State,” 144.

26 Virilio, Speed & Politics, 33.

27 Avgiris, “Comcast to Replace Usage Cap.”

28 The move beyond speed draws on Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari. Though clearly influenced by Virilio, they questioned how he assimilated three distinct speeds (nomadic, regulated, and speed of nuclear proliferation) into one “fascist” character of speed. They argued in favor of the multiplicity of speeds, rather than overall tendency of speed (Crogan, “Theory of State,” 141–43).

29 Miller, “Response Time.”

30 Miller, “Response Time,” 277.

31 Lazar, Jones, and Shneiderman, “Workplace User Frustration with Computers”; Shneiderman and Plaisant, Designing the User Interface.

32 Wakefield, “Rage against the Machine—Survey.”

33 Ceaparu et al., “Determining Causes and Severity of End-User Frustration,” 345.

34 Egger et al., “Waiting Times”; Hossfeld et al., “Initial Delay vs. Interruptions”; Ryan and Valverde, “Waiting Online.”

35 Ceaparu et al., “Determining Causes and Severity of End-User Frustration.”

36 Quoted in Bouch, Kuchinsky, and Bhatti, “Quality Is in the Eye of the Beholder,” 8.

37 Akamai, “Akamai and JupiterResearch Identify ‘4 Seconds.’”

38 Lohr, “Impatient Web Users Flee Slow-loading Sites.”

39 Krishnan and Sitaraman, “Video Stream Quality Impacts Viewer Behavior.”

40 Protalinski, “BitTorrent Performance Test.”

41 Gillespie, “Designed to ‘Effectively Frustrate.’”

42 Yeung, “‘Hypernudge’”; Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge.

43 Enigmax, “RapidShare Slows Download Speeds to Drive Away Pirates.”

44 Quoted in Brodkin, “Verizon.”

45 The discipline of transmission could also be seen as a kind of teaching through infrastructure. Susan Leigh Star suggested knowledge of infrastructures is “learned as part of membership” (“The Ethnography of Infrastructure,” 381). Flow control teaches user behavior through moments of frustration, isolation, exclusion, envy, and boredom. It bothers as well as delights. Though never blocked, it frustrates certain uses or experiences of networks while simplifying others, all teaching the user how to participate in the system.

46 Beller, The Cinematic Mode of Production; Crary, Suspensions of Perception; Smythe, Dependency Road; Terranova, Network Culture.

47 Smythe, Dependency Road.

48 Wise, “Attention and Assemblage in a Clickable World.”

49 Shifman, “An Anatomy of a YouTube Meme,” 190.

50 Netflix, 2012 Annual Report, 11.

51 Brodkin, “Netflix Performance.”

52 It’s worth noting that AT&T’s advertisement was a slight against its rival T-Mobile, who staged a flash mob in London’s Liverpool station. See: http://www.adweek.com/news/advertising-branding/ad-day-att-131843.

53 Virilio, The Art of the Motor, 140.

54 Ernesto, “TalkTalk’s P2P Throttling Kills OnLive Games.”

55 BEREC and EC, A View of Traffic Management, 15.

56 Rogers Communications, “Hi-Speed Internet.”

57 Chetty et al., “You’re Capped,” 4.

58 Chetty et al., “You’re Capped,” 4–6.

59 See Higginbotham, “More Bad News about Broadband Caps.”

60 Van Schewick, “Network Neutrality and Quality of Service,” 46.

61 Stastna, “Bell’s Discounting of Mobile TV against the Rules.”

62 Barzilai-Nahon, “Gaps and Bits”; Mansell, “From Digital Divides to Digital Entitlements”; Norris, Digital Divide.

63 Rogers Internet, “Rogers Commercial.”

64 Hassan, Empires of Speed; Rosa, “Social Acceleration”; Rosa and Scheuerman, High-Speed Society; Scheuerman, “Liberal Democracy and the Empire of Speed”; Scheuerman, Liberal Democracy; Wajcman, “Life in the Fast Lane?”

65 Scheuerman, Liberal Democracy, 5–6.

66 Rosa, “Social Acceleration”; Scheuerman, Liberal Democracy; Wajcman, “Life in the Fast Lane?”

67 Menzies, No Time; Rosenberg and Feldman, No Time to Think; Wolin, “What Time Is It?”

68 Crary, 24/7, 46.

69 Sharma, “It Changes Space and Time,” 66.

70 Sharma, “The Biopolitical Economy of Time,” 73.

71 As one high-frequency stock trader explained to the University at Albany: “It’s not just enough to fly in first class; I have to know my friends are flying in coach” (Lewis, “The Wolf Hunters of Wall Street:”).

72 See Bauer, Clark, and Lehr, “Powerboost.”

73 Virilio, Speed & Politics, 46.

74 Levy, “(Some) Attention Must Be Paid!”

75 Alexander, reflecting on the same issue, suggests that waiting might be a “nascent manifestation of masochism” (“Rage against the Machine,” 22).

76 Edwards, The Closed World; Turkle, Life on the Screen.

77 Harvey, “The Fetish of Technology,” 3.

78 Cao, Ritz, and Raad, “How Much Longer to Go?”

79 Crary, 24/7, 123.

80 Umeaenergi, “Living with Lag—an Oculus Rift Experiment”; Umeaenergi, “Living with Lag—Lag View.”

81 Barney, Prometheus Wired.

82 Bode, “CableOne Brags.”

83 Aaron, “A Scary Picture.”

84 Castells, The Rise of the Network Society.

1 For a longer discussion see Burkart, Pirate Politics.

2 Schwarz, “For the Good of the Net,” 66.

3 One of these servers now resides in the Swedish National Museum of Science and Technology (http://www.tekniskamuseet.se/1/259_en.html).

4 Daly, “Pirates of the Multiplex”; Moya, “Swedish Prosecutor.”

5 Jones, “The Pirate Bay in the Hot Seat,” np.

6 Sunde, “The Pirate Bay Interview.”

7 Touloumis, “Buccaneers and Bucks”; Burkart, Pirate Politics; Schwarz, Online File Sharing.

8 Deleuze, “Control and Becoming.”

9 Thanks to Ganaele Langlois for help with my own translation work here.

10 Eriksson, “Speech for Piratbyrån @ Bzoom Festival in Brno, Czech Rep.”

11 Schwarz, Online File Sharing, 127.

12 McKelvey, “We Like Copies”; Beyer and McKelvey, “You Are Not Welcome among Us.”

13 Sinnreich, “Sharing in Spirit.”

14 The Pirate Bay, “POwr, xxxx, Broccoli and KOPIMI.”

15 Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 15.

16 Johns, Piracy.

17 Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 354.

18 Fleischer, “Pirate Politics,”

19 Mackay and Avanessian, #Accelerate; Noys, Malign Velocities; Beckett, “Accelerationism.”

20 Deleuze and Guattari, Anti-Oedipus, 238–39.

21 Noys, Malign Velocities.

22 Frank, “Come with Us If You Want to Live.”

23 Srnicek and Williams, Inventing the Future. See also Cunningham, “A Marxist Heresy?”

24 Berry, Critical Theory and the Digital; Cunningham, “A Marxist Heresy?”; Noys, Malign Velocities.

25 Thanks to David Berry for inspiring this reflection.

26 Halliday, “British ISPs Will Block The Pirate Bay within Weeks.”

27 Sauter, The Coming Swarm; Wray, “Electronic Civil Disobedience.”

28 Quoted in Protalinski, “The Pirate Bay Criticizes Anonymous for DDoS Attack.”

29 Quoted in Protalinski, “The Pirate Bay Criticizes Anonymous for DDoS Attack.”

30 Ernesto, “The Pirate Bay Turns 10 Years Old: The History.”

31 Daly, “Pirates of the Multiplex.”

32 Ernesto, “The Pirate Bay Turns 10 Years Old: The History.”

33 Kurs, “Yo Ho Ho.”

34 Norton, “Secrets of the Pirate Bay.”

35 For more details about the founding of the group, see Simon Klose’s 2013 documentary TPB AFK: The Pirate Bay Away from Keyboard.

36 Ernesto, “Pirate Bay Is the King of Torrents Once Again.”

37 Schwarz, “For the Good of the Net.”

38 Austin, “Importing Kazza—Exporting Grokster”; Plambeck, “Court Rules That LimeWire Infringed on Copyrights.”

39 Wikipedia keeps an excellent list of BitTorrent sites that have shuttered over the years (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_issues_with_BitTorrent).

40 Cohen, “Decentralization [BitTorrent release announcement].”

41 Legout, Urvoy-Keller, and Michiardi, “Understanding Bittorrent.”

42 Chung, “Bell Reveals Internet Throttling Details to CRTC.”

43 Rogers Communications, Comment on Public Notice 2008–19.

44 Rogers Communications, “Rogers Network Management Policy.”

45 Chung, “Bell Reveals Internet Throttling Details to CRTC.”

46 Anderson, “Pirate Bay Moves to Decentralized DHT Protocol, Kills Tracker.”

47 Geere, “Pirate Bay to Abandon .torrent Files for Magnet Links.”

48 Ernesto, “BitTorrent’s Future.”

49 Ernesto, “Download a Copy of The Pirate Bay.”

50 Ernesto, “The Pirate Bay Ships New Servers to Mountain Complex”; Libbenga, “The Pirate Bay Plans to Buy Sealand.”

51 Norton, “Secrets of the Pirate Bay.”

52 Fleischer, “Pirate Politics.”

53 Deleuze, “Control and Becoming,” 175.

54 Deleuze, “Having an Idea in Cinema.”

55 Burkart, Pirate Politics, 87–92.

56 McKelvey, “We Like Copies.”

57 Greenberg, “Meet Telecomix.”

58 Tay, “Pirate Bay’s IPREDator Not a Place to Hide.”

59 Wood et al., “Virtual Private Networks.”

60 Snader, VPNs Illustrated.

61 Hamzeh et al., “RFC 2637.”

62 Patowary, “Security Flaw Makes PPTP VPN Useless for Hiding IP on BitTorrent.”

63 Tay, “Pirate Bay’s IPREDator Not a Place to Hide.”

64 Quoted from the IPREDator “Legal” page: https://www.ipredator.se/page/legal. The page does not provide an author or date, but more information about IPREDator can be found at https://ipredator.se/page/about.

65 Lawson, “Blue Coat to Acquire Packeteer for $268 Million.”

66 Packeteer Inc., Packeteer’s PacketShaper/ISP.

67 DeMaria, “PacketShaper 8500.”

68 Packeteer Inc., Packetshaper Packetseeker Getting Started Guide.

69 Packeteer Inc., Packetshaper Packetseeker Getting Started Guide.

70 Brunton and Nissenbaum, “Vernacular Resistance to Data Collection and Analysis.”

71 Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 354.

72 Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 354.

73 Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 415.

74 Fleischer, “Piratbyran’s Speech at Reboot.”

75 Fleischer, “Pirate Politics.”

76 Paine, “50 Shades of Net Neutrality Is Here.”

77 McKelvey, Tiessen, and Simcoe, “A Consensual Hallucination No More?”

78 Haralanova and Light, “Enmeshed Lives?”

79 Burkart, “Cultural Environmentalism and Collective Action”; Miegel and Olsson, “From Pirates to Politician.”

80 Ernesto, “The Pirate Bay Appeal Verdict”; Kiss, “The Pirate Bay Trial.”

81 Lindgren and Linde, “The Subpolitics of Online Piracy,” 148–49.

82 The page is accessible at https://www.facebook.com/ThePirateBayWarMachine/.

83 Ernesto, “Top 10 Most Popular Torrent Sites of 2016.”

1 Bouwsma, “Descartes’ Evil Genius.”

2 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 37–38.

3 Kelty, Two Bits.

4 Coleman, Coding Freedom.

5 Sandvig et al., “An Algorithm Audit.”

6 Shifthead, “Rogers ISP, WoW, and You!”

7 Ernesto, “Rogers’ BitTorrent Throttling Experiment Goes Horribly Wrong.”

8 Anderson, “Canadian ISPs Furious about Bell Canada’s Traffic Throttling”; Nowak, “CRTC Opens Net Neutrality Debate to Public.”

9 Bendrath and Mueller, “The End of the Net as We Know It?”; Geist, “CRTC Sets Net Neutrality Framework.”

10 Parsons, “Rogers, Network Failures, and Third-Party Oversight.”

11 Dewey, The Public and Its Problems, 15–16.

12 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 100.

13 Edwards et al., “Introduction.”

14 Ananny, “Toward an Ethics.”

15 Cheney-Lippold, “A New Algorithmic Identity”; Elmer, Profiling Machines.

16 Papacharissi, Affective Publics.

17 RogersKeith, Comment on Vindari, “[Extreme Plus] Utorrent Settings and Rogers.”

18 Goldmonger, “Canada ISP Latency Issues.”

19 Ressy, “Rogers Throttling/Deprioritizing World of Warcraft.”

20 Warner, “Publics and Counterpublics,” 55.

21 Marres, “Front-Staging Nonhumans,” 204.

22 Anderson, Imagined Communities.

23 Anderson, Imagined Communities, 33.

24 Haakonii, Comment on Shifthead, “Rogers ISP, WoW, and You!”

25 Langlois, “Meaning, Semiotechnologies and Participatory Media,” 22.

26 Gehl, “The Archive and the Processor.”

27 Deleuze, “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” 5.

28 See Sandvig, “Network Neutrality Is the New Common Carriage.”

29 Deseriis, “The General, the Watchman, and the Engineer of Control,” 392.

30 Fault, Comment on Shifthead, “Rogers ISP, WoW, and You!”

31 WoWtunnels is now defunct, but the Internet Archive has a copy of their website: https://web.archive.org/web/20080605055306/http://www.wowtunnels.com/.

32 Winderans, Comment on Shifthead, “Rogers ISP, WoW, and You!”

33 Shifthead, “Rogers ISP, WoW, and You!”

34 Dewey, The Public and Its Problems, 219.

35 Dewey as quoted in Ezrahi, “Dewey’s Critique,” 318.

36 Dewey as quoted in Ezrahi, “Dewey’s Critique,” 322.

37 Bardini, Bootstrapping, 23–24.

38 Bowker, “The History of Information Infrastructures.”

39 Kelty, Two Bits, 7.

40 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 102.

41 Callon, Lascoumes, and Barthe, Acting in an Uncertain World, 132.

42 Callon, Lascoumes, and Barthe, Acting in an Uncertain World, 28.

43 Deleuze, “Mediators,” 127.

44 See Latham, “Border Formations.”

45 Kupferman, “How World of Warcraft Players Got Rogers to Admit It Was Wrong.”

46 Ressy also wrote a detailed log of the interactions between gamers and the CRTC, but the link to it has gone dead.

47 KingNerd, Comment on Ressy, “Rogers Throttling/Deprioritizing World of Warcraft.”

48 Irix, Comment on Ressy, “Rogers Throttling/Deprioritizing World of Warcraft.”

49 Ressie, Comment on Goldmonger, “Canada ISP Latency Issues.”

50 Brianl, Comment on Goldmonger, “Canada ISP Latency Issues.”

51 Brianl, Comment 1 on Tachion, “Outrageous Latency & Constant DC.”

52 Brianl, Comment 2 on Tachion, “Outrageous Latency & Constant DC.”

53 Webb, “Gamers vs. Rogers.”

54 Geist, “Rogers Faces More Questions”; Geist, “CRTC Issues Warning to Rogers.”

55 Ellis, “Why Is the CRTC Auditing the Gamers Instead of Rogers?”

56 Tencer, “Gamers’ Group.”

57 CBC News, “Rogers Admits It May Be Throttling Games.”

58 Mueller and Asghari, “Deep Packet Inspection and Bandwidth Management”; Asghari, van Eeten, and Mueller, Internet Measurements and Public Policy.

59 Chung, “Rogers Throttling May Breach Net Neutrality Rules.”

60 Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), Archived email.

61 Rogers Internet, “Rogers Network Management Policy.”

62 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 31–32.

63 Mittelstadt et al., “The Ethics of Algorithms,” 11.

64 Mittelstadt et al., “The Ethics of Algorithms,” 12.

65 Mittelstadt et al., “The Ethics of Algorithms,” 5.

66 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 38.

67 Bennett, Vibrant Matter, 37.

68 Calo, Froomkin, and Kerr, Robot Law.

69 Braman, “The Geopolitical vs. the Network Political,” 291.

70 Obar, “Closing the Technocratic Divide?”

71 Flyverbom, “Transparency”; Ananny and Crawford, “Seeing without Knowing.”

72 McKelvey, “Openness Compromised?”; Tkacz, Wikipedia and the Politics of Openness.

73 Schrock and Shaffer, “Data Ideologies of an Interested Public.”

74 Tutt, “An FDA for Algorithms.”

75 Gabrys, Pritchard, and Barratt, “Just Good Enough Data,” 2.

76 Brabham, “The Boston Marathon Bombings”; Nhan, Huey, and Broll, “Digilantism”; Schneider and Trottier, “The 2011 Vancouver Riot.”

77 Reddit, “Reflections on the Recent Boston Crisis.”

78 Margonis, “John Dewey’s Racialized Visions of the Student and Classroom Community.”

79 Shade, “Public Interest Activism in Canadian ICT Policy.”

80 Kimball, “Wonkish Populism.”

81 Gabrys, Pritchard, and Barratt, “Just Good Enough Data.”

82 Neilson and Rossiter, “Precarity as a Political Concept,” 64–67.

83 McMahon et al., “Making Information Technologies Work at the End of the Road.”

84 Crawford, “The Hidden Biases in Big Data.”

85 Raboy and Shtern, Media Divides.

1 Hayles, How We Became Posthuman, 232.

2 Allot Communications, “Allot Smart Pipe Management.”

3 Pike, Systems Software Research Is Irrelevant.

4 Mackenzie, “Java”; Lash, Critique of Information.

5 Lash, Critique of Information, 24.

6 Thanks to David Mason for all the conversation and the casual aside about Inferno from Bell Labs that inspired this section.

7 Pike et al., “Plan 9 from Bell Labs,” 222.

8 Mackenzie, “Java.”

9 Dorward et al., “The Inferno Operating System,” 5.

10 Dorward et al., “The Inferno Operating System,” 5.

11 Dorward et al., “The Inferno Operating System,” 5.

12 Hogan, “Data Flows and Water Woes.”

13 Parnell, “Epic Net Outage in Africa as FOUR Undersea Cables Chopped.”

14 Starosielski, The Undersea Network.

15 Kurra, “Egypt Shut Down Its Net with a Series of Phone Calls.”

16 Deibert et al., Access Denied.

17 Latham, “Networks, Information, and the Rise of the Global Internet,” 149.

18 The problem of network relations is a familiar one within telecommunications, since it resembles the disputes between regional telephone companies over how to connect to one another when providing long-distance services (see Noam, Interconnecting the Network of Networks). The economics of connection manifest in calls to different regions or countries having specific long-distance rates (and in the bewildering choices of long-distance plans and calling cards).

19 See DeNardis, The Global War for Internet Governance, chapter 5.

20 Crawford, “Internet Think.”

21 Anderson, “Peering Problems”; Brodkin, “Netflix Packets Being Dropped.”

22 Clement, Paterson, and Phillips, “IXmaps.”

23 Geist, “All Your Internets Belong to US, Continued.”

24 Halsall, “The Pirate Bay Proxy.”

25 Barlow, “A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace.”

26 Braun, “Transparent Intermediaries.”

27 Holt, “Regulating Connected Viewing”; Stevenson, The Master Switch and the Hyper Giant.

28 Mueller, Ruling the Root.

29 Busch, Standards; Lampland and Star, Standards and Their Stories; Russell, Open Standards and the Digital Age.

30 DeNardis, Protocol Politics; DeNardis, Opening Standards.

31 Galloway, Protocol.

32 The externalities of standards have become sites of political, economic, and social struggle. The U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) and the Communications Security Establishment of Canada (CSEC) have actively undermined security protocols to ensure interception (see Ball, Borger, and Greenwald, “Revealed”). Document formats such as the Open Document Format (ODF) attempt to wrest control from the dominant Word file format and the influence of Microsoft (see Rens, “Open Document Standards for Government”). Developers of the HTML5 web standard are currently debating whether to include Digital Rights Management (DRM), normalizing an important control to secure digital content (see Schrock, “HTML5 and Openness in Mobile Platforms”). English continues to be the de facto language on the web in part because character encoding standards lack international characters. It was only in 2010 that the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) started to allow international characters with some national domain names (so the town of Hörby might finally have a proper domain name; see ICANN, “First IDN CcTLDs Available,” and Pargman and Palme, “ASCII Imperialism”).

33 Rosenzweig, “The Road to Xanadu.”

34 Langlois and Elmer, “Wikipedia Leeches?”

35 Leyshon, “Time—Space (and Digital) Compression”; Spilker and Hoier, “Technologies of Piracy?”; Sterne, MP3.

36 Anthony, “Google Teaches ‘AIs’ to Invent Their Own Crypto.”

37 Russell, Open Standards and the Digital Age.

38 Mansell, Imagining the Internet; Kelty, Two Bits.

39 Elmer, “The Vertical (Layered) Net.”

40 Langlois et al., “Networked Publics,” 419.

41 I use the term “mediation” deliberately. Nick Couldry describes mediation as “capturing a variety of dynamics within media flows,” elaborating, “by ‘media flows’ I mean flows of production, circulation, interpretation or reception and recirculation, as interpretations flow back into production or outwards into general social and cultural life” (“Mediatization or Mediation?” 9).

42 Nagy and Neff, “Imagined Affordances.”

43 Gillespie, “The Politics of ‘Platforms,’” 358.

44 Gillespie, “The Politics of ‘Platforms,’” 359.

45 Van Dijck, The Culture of Connectivity; Gillespie, “The Politics of ‘Platforms’”; Langlois et al., “Mapping Commercial Web 2.0 Worlds.”

46 Karpf, The MoveOn Effect; Kreiss, Taking Our Country Back.

47 Pariser, The Filter Bubble.

48 Hallinan and Striphas, “Recommended for You.”

49 Ananny and Crawford, “A Liminal Press.”

50 Meyer, “Everything We Know About Facebook’s Secret Mood Manipulation Experiment.”

51 Shahani, “In Google Newsroom, Brazil Defeat Is Not a Headline.”

52 Cote and Pybus, “Learning to Immaterial Labour 2.0”; Elmer, Profiling Machines; Mosco, The Political Economy of Communication; Terranova, Network Culture.

53 Helmond, “Adding the Bling.”

54 Bucher, “Want to Be on the Top?”

55 Feenberg, Questioning Technology.

56 Consalvo, Cheating.

57 Stuart, “Megan Lee Heart and Reply Girls Game the System.”

58 O’Neill, “YouTube Responds to Reply Girls.”

59 Söderberg, “Misuser Inventions and the Invention of the Misuser.”

60 Diakopoulos, “Algorithmic Accountability”; Ananny, “Toward an Ethics”; Gillespie, “The Relevance of Algorithms”; Crawford and Lumby, “Networks of Governance.”

61 Chen, “Facebook Will Start Tracking Which Stores You Walk Into.”

62 Krashinsky, “Rogers to Offer Promotional Ads by Text.”

63 Reagle, Good Faith Collaboration, 84–86.

64 Woolley and Howard, “Political Communication, Computational Propaganda, and Autonomous Agents.”

65 Woolley, “Automating Power.”

66 Google, “Load AMP Pages Quickly with Google AMP Cache.”

67 Foucault, Security, Territory, Population, 47.

68 Foucault, Security, Territory, Population, 47.

69 Gillespie, Wired Shut, 652.

70 Johns, Piracy.

71 While they predate the popularity of platforms, Raiford Guins details simple software logics functioning in “device control” to regulate the interactions of the household. These devices offered a variety of mechanisms of control: they “block, filter, sanitize, clean and patch” digital information to allow open circulation while embedding certain limits within this freedom. Guins focuses on the developments in media technologies that facilitate a “control at a distance.” Control embeds in DVD players, televisions, and computer games that can manage the circulation of content on the fly (see Edited Clean Version).

72 Dayal, “The Algorithmic Copyright Cops”; YouTube Help, “How Content ID Works.”

73 Angwin et al., “NSA Spying.”

74 Kuerbis and Mueller, “Securing the Root.”

75 Vincent, “Google Received More than 345 Million Link Takedown Requests Last Year.”

76 The development of self-censorship can be much more complicated than the cultural influence of state surveillance, as seen in Azerbaijan, where an honor culture and fear of state monitoring guide online impression management (Pearce and Vitak, “Performing Honor Online.”).

77 Lee, “Internet Control and Auto-Regulation in Singapore.”

78 “The Five Eyes” refers to the international intelligence alliance between Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. This cooperation includes both human intelligence (popularly seen as the work of spies and covert operations) and signals intelligence or SIGINT. Cooperation in SIGINT occurs between Canada’s CSEC, America’s NSA, the Australian Signals Directorate (ASD), New Zealand’s Government Communications Security Bureau (GCSB), and the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) of the United Kingdom.

79 Bamford, The Shadow Factory.

80 Anderson, “AT&T Engineer.”

81 Timberg, “NSA Slide Shows Surveillance of Undersea Cables.”

82 MacAskill et al., “GCHQ Taps Fibre-Optic Cables.”

83 Greenwald and MacAskill, “NSA Prism Program Taps in to User Data of Apple, Google and Others.”

84 Hildebrandt, Pereira, and Seglins, “CSE Tracks Millions of Downloads Daily.”

85 Lee, “Report.”

86 The leaks may have done little to change American public opinion. As of 2013, Americans care more about avoiding the watch of criminals (33 percent) or advertisers (28 percent) than about avoiding that of the government (5 percent) or law enforcement (4 percent) (see Rainie et al., “Anonymity, Privacy, and Security Online”). In 2015, Pew found that 30 percent of American adults had heard about the surveillance programs. Of those aware, 34 percent had modified their behavior to protect their information from the government (see Rainie and Madden, “Americans’ Privacy Strategies Post-Snowden”).

87 Hildebrandt, Pereira, and Seglins, “CSE Tracks Millions of Downloads Daily.”

88 Greenwald, “How Covert Agents Infiltrate the Internet.”

89 Crawford and Gillespie, “What Is a Flag For?”; Roberts, “Behind the Screen.”

90 Bazelon, “How to Stop the Bullies”; Chen, “The Laborers Who Keep Dick Pics and Beheadings Out of Your Facebook Feed.”

91 Menn and Volz, “Google, Facebook Quietly Move toward Automatic Blocking.”

92 Mueller, Kuehn, and Santoso, “Policing the Network.”

93 Andy, “Cisco Develops System to Automatically Cut-Off Pirate Video Streams.”

94 Howard, Pax Technica, xxi.

95 Dante, Divine Comedy: The Inferno, 41.

1 Karas, “Network Measurement Program (NMP),” 1.

2 McKelvey, “A Programmable Platform?”

3 Lessig, Code.

4 Muuss, “The Story of the PING Program.”

5 Cerf, Guidelines for Internet Measurement Activities.

6 Molyneux and Williams, “Measuring the Internet,” 288.

7 Dodge and Kitchin, Mapping Cyberspace.

8 Molyneux and Williams, “Measuring the Internet,” 300.

9 Peterson, “Speakeasy Founder Leaves for New Venture.”

10 Dovrolis et al., “Measurement Lab.”

11 Li et al., “Classifiers Unclassified”; Kakhki et al., “BingeOn Under the Microscope.”

12 Dischinger et al., “Glasnost.”

13 More details about WeHe are available at its website: https://dd.meddle.mobi/index.html.

14 Clement, Paterson, and Phillips, “IXmaps.”