Notes

Introduction

Māori is used by New Zealand Māori and Cook Islands Māori communities. I acknowledge that the unmarked Māori could refer to either of these communities; however, in this book, Māori should be understood as New Zealand Māori, unless otherwise indicated.

Please note that the Māori language (and several other Polynesian languages) uses the macron to indicate a long vowel (ā, ē, ī, ō, ū). Because this convention is not used universally (it is rather recent and does not appear in older sources but also does not always appear in contemporary texts), throughout this book, the Māori language is left in direct quotes as it appears in the original and in names as the person would have spelled his or her own name: Te Rangihiroa instead of Te Rangihīroa, for example. (This also applies to the names of organizations; I have left Nga Tamatoa without a macron because this is the proper name of a specific group, and the macron was not used at the time.) Also, where words have been Anglicized by adding a suffix not present in the original language (e.g., the n at the end of Sāmoa to create the word Samoan), I follow the convention of recognizing that the word has become English and therefore has no macron. Also note that the Māori language does not identify the plural in the noun or adjective itself, and so it is accepted convention to avoid adding an s to indicate a plural. For example, Māori could refer to the singular or plural, as inferred from the surrounding sentence. The plural can also be indicated by a shift to a longer vowel: tangata whenua is singular, whereas tāngata whenua is plural.

The convention of italicizing foreign words is tricky in the place of Indigenous languages, and there are various schools of thought around whether Māori should be italicized in this kind of English-language text. Although I recognize the argument that italicizing Māori prevents it from being incorporated into the English language as a set of loanwords rather than retaining its integrity as a quotation from a distinct language, I prefer to follow the convention of leaving the Māori language in roman type as a recognition that, for this writer, and for many of the readers of this book, Māori is not a foreign (or to use the term of the Chicago Manual of Style, “unfamiliar”) language. In this way, the Māori language is unmarked in the same way as, for example, Latin is unmarked in other predominantly English texts. English and Māori sit side by side as center languages in this book, neither capable of fully rendering the other as Other, foreign, or unfamiliar.

Finally, three original poems appear in this book (in chapter 1, chapter 6, and the conclusion), which were written by the author. These are intended to extend the critical engagements undertaken in the prose text and therefore are not themselves critically analyzed or discussed.

1. 1. Ra’iatea is known in the Māori language as Rangiātea and is referred to in the epigraph: “e kore au e ngaro; he kākano i ruia i Rangiātea,” literally, “I can never be lost for I am a seed sown at Rangiātea,” which confirms that any descendent of the voyages from tropical Polynesia can never be extricated from her place in the networks of Māori identification and relationship. Because this whakataukī, or “proverb,” asserts the impossibility of absolute separation from whakapapa, it is often mobilized in contemporary times as an affirmation for Māori whose knowledge of their own genealogies, language, or tikanga has been lessened or ruptured by the impact of colonialism. Rangiātea is also the name of a spiritual realm (one of twelve heavens).

2. 2. Nicholas Thomas spends some time reflecting on this map in his introduction to On Oceania: Visions, Artifacts, Histories (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997).

3. 3. In North America, lobster.

4. 4. Harold B. Carter, “Note on the Drawings by an Unknown Artist from the Voyage of HMS Endeavour,” in Science and Exploration in the Pacific, ed. Margarette Lincoln (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 1998), 133–34. Carter identified this as Tupaia’s work in 1997 on the basis of a letter written by Banks to Dawson Turner dated December 12, 1812. Banks (1743–1820) was a scientist who traveled extensively in regions we now know as the Americas, Africa, and the Pacific. He desired to take Tupaia to London “as a curiosity, as some of my neighbours do lions and tigers at greater expense that he will ever put me to,” but Tupaia passed away in Batavia (now Indonesia) before Banks was able to carry out this fantasy. Instead, “Omai,” a younger man picked up in Tahiti during Cook’s second voyage around the Pacific, was the Polynesian who accompanied Banks to London.

5. 5. Keith Vincent Smith, “Tupaia’s Sketchbook,” eBLJ, article 10 (2005), http://21citizen.org.uk/eblj/2005articles/pdf/article10.pdf.

6. 6. British Library Department of Manuscripts, Add. MS 15508. The Māori man pictured holding the crayfish is unknown; the European pictured is Joseph Banks.

7. 7. “Aotearoa” is commonly used as the Māori name for New Zealand, although I recognize that historically, this name has referred to the North Island only.

8. 8. Sidney M. Mead, Landmarks, Bridges, and Visions: Aspects of Maori Culture: Essays (Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria University Press, 1997), 7–8.

9. 9. Kōkiri, “Te Hono Ki Rarotonga,” 2009, http://www.tpk.govt.nz/en/in-print/kokiri/kokiri-13-2009/te-hono-ki-rarotonga/ (accessed March 21, 2009).

10. 10. Peter Adds makes this argument in his teaching about the peopling of Polynesia at Victoria University of Wellington.

11. 11. Please note that Hawaiki is spelled “Hawaiiki” in some sources; I have left the original spelling in quotations but otherwise follow the convention of a single i.

12. 12. Waitangi Tribunal, Te Whanganui a Tara me ona Takiwa; Report on the Wellington District (Wellington, New Zealand: Waitangi Tribunal and Legislation Direct, 2003), 110.

13. 13. The return of “Matiu” as a part of the name after years of the island being “Somes” is testimony not only to the Indigenous–Māori context of the island but also to the ongoing struggle on the part of the Indigenous people to maintain links to that island.

14. 14. Alan Duff, Once Were Warriors (Auckland, New Zealand: Tandem Press, 1990). The feature film based on Duff’s novel was released four years later. Once Were Warriors, VHS, directed by Lee Tamahori (1994; Auckland: Communicado Film, 1995).

15. 15. Indigenous is a terrifically complex word, and it can do its best work when it is allowed to be as supple and flexible as possible. Its meaning is either slightly or dramatically different each time it is produced, whether at the United Nations, on the contents page of an anthology, on the guest list of an academic conference, and so on. Although the word is engaged across a range of spatial, temporal, and cultural contexts to describe the predicament of (usually minority) communities who are the original inhabitants of an area, Indigenous most often refers in a rather limited sense to those communities over whose lands the four (largely) Anglophone settler nations of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States are presently spread. Often described as the fourth world, this particular group of Indigenous communities shares originary claims of a unique and primary connection to specific land; historical experiences of British imperialism; demographic marginalization in which non-Indigenous communities make up the majority of citizens in the settler nation-state; and an ongoing struggle to retain linguistic, cultural, spiritual, governmental, resource, intellectual, and creative sovereignty.

16. 16. Vernice Wineera, Into the Luminous Tide: Pacific Poems (Provo, Utah: Centre for the Study of Christian Values in Literature, 2009).

17. 17. Māori make up an increasing proportion of the New Zealand population because of the relative youth of the community.

18. 18. Competition for recognition by the state is a corollary of this situation, as when some Māori questioned Prime Minister Helen Clark’s willingness to formally apologize to Sāmoa on behalf of New Zealand for its colonial exploits, despite being reluctant to engage with Māori in the same way.

19. 19. The boundaries of the New Zealand state are understood conservatively here: Tokelau is a dependent territory and could conceivably be considered part of New Zealand’s territory (the “Realm of New Zealand”). At a further remove, Niue and the Cook Islands remain in political free association with their former colonial power, and a proposal that New Zealand should formally recolonize those nations comes to light with surprising regularity.

20. 20. Further information about these original journeys is plentiful. For example, see K. R. Howe, ed., Vaka Moana, Voyages of the Ancestors: The Discovery and Settlement of the Pacific (Auckland, New Zealand: David Bateman, 2006).

21. 21. The paepae is the space from which orators speak.

22. 22. Ngāti Kahungunu Iwi Inc., “Supporting Indigenous Rights through Takitimu Fest,” Scoop: Independent News, October 9, 2008, http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/CU0810/S00114.htm.

23. 23. I am using the term Anglophone literary studies in place of English because of the slippage between English the language (and the literary tradition of texts written in that language) and English the culture–nation (and its own literary tradition). The production of an English literary canon has naturalized the slippage between a literary tradition of English-language texts and the English culture–nation because the vast majority of texts in the English canon are produced by ethnically English writers. Gauri Viswanathan observes that the discipline of English itself was in fact produced in India as a specific tool of the colonizing project. Anglophone, by contrast, means English language, but its refusal to naturalize a mutual relationship between English language and English culture produces an entirely different configuration between English language, specific literary forms, English culture, British imperialism, and the colonial project. Gauri Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest: Literary Studies and British Rule in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989).

24. 24. Thomas King, The Truth about Stories: A Native Narrative (Toronto, Ont.: House of Anansi Press, 2003).

25. 25. I align myself with the dominant contemporary view that a text’s production of meaning (linguistic, visual, aural, movement, or otherwise) is the outer limit of the scholar’s reach. This means, for example, that I am less interested in conducting a forensic evaluation of a Wineera poem to deduce what she really thinks than I am in focusing on the poem as a poem, as a text that produces meaning about those connections through its use of language and which, I may argue, suggests some things whether or not Wineera intended that meaning or whether her intention at the time of writing is accessible by me or, indeed, by her. One cannot entirely remove the figure of the writer and her lived experience; if it were possible to do so, there would be no such thing as Māori writing in English because the whakapapa of the writer would be irrelevant, but this does remove an obligation to link or limit claims about a text to the perceived or stated deliberate intentions of the person who produced the text [x].

26. 26. Rewiti Tuhorouta Kohere, The Autobiography of a Maori (Wellington, New Zealand: A. H. and A. W. Reed, 1951).

27. 27. Chadwick Allen, Blood Narrative; Indigenous Identity in American Indian and Maori Literary and Activist Texts (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002); Otto Heim, Writing along Broken Lines: Violence and Ethnicity in Contemporary Maori Fiction (Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University Press, 1998); Evan Rask Knudsen, The Circle and the Spiral (Amsterdam, Netherlands: Rodopi, 2004).

28. 28. Tracy McIntosh, “Hibiscus in the Flax Bush,” in Tangata o te Moana nui: The Evolving Identities of Pacific People in Aotearoa New Zealand, ed. C. Macpherson, P. Spoonley, and M. Anae (Palmerston North, New Zealand: Dunmore Press, 2001); Donna Awatere, Maori Sovereignty (Auckland, New Zealand: Broadsheet, 1984).

29. 29. A U.K.-edited collection of essays about the topic includes some good material. Graham Harvey and Charles D. Thompson Jr., eds., Indigenous Diasporas and Dislocations (Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2005).

30. 30. Tony Ballantyne, “Race and the Webs of Empire: Aryanism from India to the Pacific,” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 2, no. 3 (2001), http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_colonialism_and_colonial_history/v002/2.3ballantyne.html.

31. 31. Many mixed Māori–Pasifika people are active in Māori and Pasifika communities, including artistic and literary communities. Perhaps among the most prominent would be Che Fu (a Niue–Māori hip-hop practitioner) and Miria George (a Cook Islander–Māori playwright and poet).

32. 32. Anne Salmond, The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: Captain Cook in the South Seas (Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin, 2004).

Introduction to Part 1: Tapa

1. 1. Some early European references spell this “aouta.”

2. 2. Māori are included in various incarnations of the Pacific outside New Zealand. For example, Māori have participated in the Pacific Arts Festival since its inception. Bill Kerekere writes about his experience in the inaugural festival in “South Pacific Festival of Arts,” Te Ao Hou 72 (1973): 43–48. In the arena of visual arts, three international exhibitions of contemporary New Zealand–based Pacific art have included Māori artists (Pasifika was curated by Melissa Chu at the Canberra Contemporary Art Space; Pasifika Styles was curated by Amiria Henare and Rosanna Raymond at Cambridge University, 2006–8; and AnneMarie Tupuola brought a Pacific art exhibition to New York City in 2002). Likewise, courses on Pacific literature in North America, Europe, and around the Pacific usually include Māori writers and texts.

3. 3. Thanks to April Henderson and Teresia Teaiwa for vivid and enthusiastic discussion around this point.

4. 4. Albert Wendt, “Towards a New Oceania,” Mana 1, no. 1 (1976): 49–60. The essay has been reprinted often; in some key collections and essays, reprints are given as the source, and this implies that the essay is from that year. For example, the bibliography of Borofsky’s Remembrance of Pacific Pasts notes its publication date as 1983, when it appeared in A Pacific Islands Collection (71–85) Seaweeds and Constructions: Anthology Hawai‘i 7. Robert Borofsky, Remembrance of Pacific Pasts: An Invitation to Remake History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000).

5. 5. Epeli Hau’ofa, “Our Sea of Islands,” in A New Oceania: Rediscovering Our Sea of Islands, ed. Eric Waddell, Vijay Naidu, and Epeli Hau’ofa, 22–16 (Suva, Fiji: University of the South Pacific, 1993).

6. 6. Of course, Oceania is still in the language of the colonizer (or at least one of the colonizers), and some scholars are engaging Indigenous terms, such as Tevita Ka’ili’s preferred Moana, which is a pan-Polynesian term but not, unfortunately, pan-Pacific.

7. 7. Wendt, “Towards a New Oceania,” 71.

8. 8. In this chapter, page references will be to the 1999 reprint of the essay. Epeli Hau’ofa, “Our Sea of Islands,” in Inside Out: Literature, Cultural Politics, and Identity in the New Pacific, ed. Vilsoni Hereniko and Rob Wilson (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999).

9. 9. Ibid., 31.

10. 10. Ibid., 30.

11. 11. Ibid., 32.

12. 12. Producing a detailed overview of Pacific studies and Pacific literary studies is not the purpose of this introduction. However, I will note, perhaps as a caveat, that Pacific studies itself is neither monolithic nor understood monolithically. Like many other fields of area studies and Indigenous studies, its boundaries are endlessly contestable and are not determined by topic or content alone.

13. 13. This was crystallized for me at the workshop titled “Future Directions in Pacific Studies” at the University of California, Santa Cruz, in May 2004, in which several of the scholars working in interdisciplinary fields drew on Wendt’s “Tatauing the Post-colonial Body,” an essay that comes explicitly out of literary studies.

14. 14. Steven Edmund Winduo, “Unwriting Oceania: The Repositioning of the Pacific Writer Scholars within a Folk Narrative Space,” New Literary History: A Journal of Theory and Interpretation 31, no. 2 (2000): 599–613. A correlation between the production and criticism of Pacific literary works is widely recognized; literary scholars from the Pacific tend also to be writers. It is possible to imagine a pragmatic connection, in which writers seek employment opportunities in a related field, but we might also consider the high value placed on reciprocity that underpins many Pacific ontologies.

15. 15. What counts as Pacific literary studies? Is Paul Lyons’s and Michelle Elleray’s very productive work on writing about the Pacific by non-Pacific people a part of this field?

16. 16. In this essay, Wendt models Pacific literary criticism that invokes a Pacific-centered metaphor—the tatau (Samoan body tattoo)—to approach Pacific literature, recasting the conventional (Western–institutional) notions of literature, literariness, and criticism by assuming that the tatau belongs in its scope both as text and as theory. Because his essay focuses on the pe’a/malu that is specific to Sāmoa, he does not advocate moving from cultural specificity toward a squishy and pan-Pacificness but rather suggests that this literally embodied specificity is itself one way to apprehend the whole region. Albert Wendt, “Tatauing the Post-colonial Body,” SPAN 42–43 (April–October 1996): 15–29.

17. 17. Subramani, South Pacific Literature: From Myth to Fabulatio (Suva, Fiji: University of the South Pacific, 1908), xi. Subramani does not elaborate on these so-called common motifs, and given that Māori and Indigenous Australian writing has tended to assert a distinctive voice, it is difficult to argue with confidence that Māori and Indigenous Australian writing uncomplicatedly “belongs” to the mainstream of either country.

18. 18. Vilsoni Hereniko elaborates the significance of 1994 to Pacific literary studies in his foreword to Nicholas J. Goetzfridt, Indigenous Literature of Oceania: A Survey of Criticism and Interpretation, Bibliographies and Indexes in World Literature 47 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995).

19. 19. Paul Sharrad, ed., Readings in Pacific Literature (Wollongong: New Literatures Research Centre, University of Wollongong, 1993); Goetzfridt, Indigenous Literature of Oceania; Hereniko and Wilson, Inside Out.

20. 20. Te Rangihiroa, “The Evolution of Maori Clothing,” Journal of Polynesian Society 33, no. 129 (1924): 31.

21. 21. Ibid., 31. Indeed, Te Rangihiroa had attended school at Te Aute, which derives its name from the local area, Te Aute, where aute plants previously thrived before their extinction.

1. Māori People in Pacific Spaces

1. 1. Te Rangihiroa was also known by the name of Peter Buck, or Sir Peter Buck after his knighthood. I am following the convention of using the name “Te Rangihiroa” when I refer to him because this was his preferred name under which to publish. (“Te Rangihiroa” also appears as “Te Rangi Hiroa” in some sources.)

2. 2. J. B. Condliffe, Te Rangi Hiroa: The Life of Sir Peter Buck (Christchurch, New Zealand: Whitcombe and Tombes, 1971), 39.

3. 3. Te Rangihiroa’s publications are fully listed in ibid.

4. 4. “Te Rangi Hīroa,” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Te_Rangi_H%C4%ABroa&oldid=404458547 (accessed January 10, 2011).

5. 5. “Te Rangi Hīroa,” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te_Rangi_Hiroa (accessed December 2008).

6. 6. Te Rangihiroa, The Coming of the Maori (Wellington, New Zealand: Maori Purposes Fund Board and Whitcombe and Tombes, 1949).

7. 7. Des Kahotea has written about Te Rangihiroa’s phase as an anthropologist. Des Kahotea, “Rebel Discourses: Soclonial Violence, Pai Marire Resistance, and Land Allocation at Tauranga,” PhD diss., Waikato University, 2005.

8. 8. Condliffe, Te Rangi Hiroa, 158.

9. 9. Ibid., 228. A heiau is a Hawaiian temple.

10. 10. For an excellent treatment of the impact and methods of these disciplines, look at Martin Nakata, Disciplining the Savages, Savaging the Disciplines (Canberra, Australia: Aboriginal Studies Press, 2007).

11. 11. The only book-length biography of Te Rangihiroa was written by Condliffe after Eric Ramsden and then Ernest Beaglehole (both prominent popular scholars and writers of the time) passed away while working on earlier drafts. Condliffe’s biography is popular rather than scholarly but is a valuable resource. He outlines the relationship between Yale and the Bishop Museum in the chapter “Yale in Polynesia.” Condliffe, Te Rangi Hiroa, 169–85. By the time Te Rangihiroa arrived at Yale in 1932, Yale students and alumni had had a deep historical connection with the Pacific, and especially Hawai‘i, since the early nineteenth century. Several alumni had worked as whalers, merchants, and missionaries, which resulted in a group of Hawaiian men (most notably Opukahaia) traveling to New Haven. Yale alum missionaries based in Hawai‘i sent their sons back to Yale, and a close connection was forged that ultimately linked the Bishop Museum in Hawai‘i and Yale in New Haven. The Bishop would send scholars to Yale on year-long lectureships to provide specialist Pacific teaching capacity, and the director of the museum would be a member of the faculty of the Graduate School at Yale, appointed by the museum trustees but funded by Yale. Te Rangihiroa’s original connection to Yale in 1932 was in this capacity. Kehaulani Kauanui has written about Opukahaia in J. Kehaulani Kauanui, “Diasporic Deracination and ‘Off-Island’ Hawaiians,” Contemporary Pacific 19, no. 1 (2007): 138–60.

12. 12. A close friend to Te Rangihiroa, Ramsden, was a Pākehā–white scholar based in New Zealand.

13. 13. Te Rangihiroa to Eric Ramsden, May 5, 1948, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand.

14. 14. Senate Journal, Territory of Hawaii 22nd Legislature, Regular Session, 1943, 945.

15. 15. Ibid., 946.

16. 16. Ibid.

17. 17. Ian F. Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1996). At the end of the Civil War, Senator Sumner unsuccessfully attempted to expunge the legacy of the 1857 case Dred Scott v. Sandford, in which the Supreme Court ruled that no one of African descent could claim U.S. citizenship, “by striking any reference to race from the naturalization statute”; ibid., 4. Naturalization is the relevant law because Te Rangihiroa was already a citizen elsewhere; reference to race was removed from U.S. birthright citizenship legislation in 1940.

18. 18. Ibid., 2.

19. 19. Ibid., 28.

20. 20. Quoted in ibid., 71.

21. 21. In the New Zealand context, perhaps the most prominent argument for an elevated racial understanding of Māori was made by Tregear, who drew on comparative mythology and linguistics. Edward Tregear, The Aryan Maori (Wellington, New Zealand: G. Didsbury, 1885).

22. 22. As a result of this case, not only was Thind’s application for citizenship declined but at least sixty-five people of Asian Indian origin who had been naturalized between 1923 and 1927 were stripped of their citizenship.

23. 23. Much of the work about these issues assumes that all noncitizens approach the United States for citizenship from the same position. It would be interesting to research arguments for citizenship on the basis of residence (jus soli) and on the basis of blood (jus sanguinis) in the specific case of Hawaiian and Samoan Polynesians living in U.S.-controlled territory. Kehaulani Kauanui’s work is an important starting point for this project. J. Kehaulani Kauanui, Hawaiian Blood: Colonialism and the Politics of Sovereignty and Indigeneity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2008).

24. 24. Certainly “Caucasian origin” is not the same as “white,” although this public document relies on a slippage between “Irish” and “Caucasian,” and because the “Caucasian origin” of “Polynesians” is offered as a counter to an exclusion from citizenship on the basis of race, one could argue that “Caucasian” is supposed to be (mis)understood here to stand in for “white.”

25. 25. In June 1946, Te Rangihiroa got a better offer: a knighthood. I have written about this in more detail elsewhere: “I belong to that stock: Te Rangihiroa’s application for US citizenship,” in Barbara Baird and Damien Riggs, eds., The Racial Politics of Bodies, Nations, and Knowledges (Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K.: Cambridge Scholars Press, 2009).

26. 26. Te Rangihiroa to Eric Ramsden, May 5, 1948, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand.

27. 27. Although the American Samoan community experiences disproportionately high mortality and injury rates out of all ethnic communities in the U.S. military, American Samoans are not accorded citizenship as a right. Being born in American Sāmoa makes one a U.S. national rather than a U.S. citizen.

28. 28. This “Asian Pacific” is still the configuration in formal American racial categories, as foregrounded in the scholarly context of debates about the naming of the Association for Asian American Studies.

29. 29. In the poem that follows, a waiata tangi is a song of lament or mourning, a whare is a house, whakairo are carvings, a karanga is a woman’s chant, and wairua is the spirit.

30. 30. Terry Webb, “The Temple and the Theme Park: Intention and Indirection in Religious Tourist Art,” in An Anthropology of Indirect Communication, ed. Joy Hendry, 128–42 (New York: Routledge, 2001).

31. 31. Polynesian Cultural Center, “Frequently Asked Questions,” http://www.polynesia.com/faqs.html#purpose.

32. 32. Terry Webb, “High Structured Tourist Art: Form and Meaning at the Polynesian Cultural Centre,” The Contemporary Pacific 6, no. 1 (1994): 80.

33. 33. A whakataetae is a competition; in this case, competition itself is referred to by the name “Whakataetae.” Kapa haka are Māori performing arts.

34. 34. Matthew Kester, “Race, Religion, and Citizenship in Mormon Country: Native Hawaiians in Salt Lake City, 1869–1889,” The Western Historical Quarterly XX (2009): 51–76.

35. 35. Vernice Wineera, “Selves and Others: A Study of Reflexivity and the Representation of Culture in Touristic Display at the Polynesian Cultural Centre,” PhD diss., University of Hawai‘i at Manoa, 2000.

36. 36. Hokulani Aikau, “Polynesian Pioneers: Twentieth Century Religious Racial Formations and Migration in Hawai‘i,” PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 2005.

37. 37. R. Lanier Britsch, Moramona: The Mormons in Hawaii (Laie, Hawai‘i: Institute for Polynesian Studies, 1989).

38. 38. Ibid., 15.

39. 39. In turn, these pre-Indian communities are understood to be remnants of the original tribes of Israel, which, as well as conceptually providing an historical basis for the LDS Church, also literally provide the written foundation of the church by having produced the Book of Mormon, an ancient text buried by that community before it disappeared.

40. 40. Robert O’Brien, Hands across the Water: The Story of the Polynesian Cultural Center (La‘ie, Hawai‘i: Polynesian Cultural Centre, 1983), 73.

41. 41. Ibid.

42. 42. Ibid.

43. 43. Te Rangihiroa, Arts and Crafts of Hawaii (Honolulu, Hawai‘i: Bishop Museum, 1957).

44. 44. Barney Christie, interview by Kalili Hunt, PCC Oral History Program, Brigham Young University–Hawai‘i Joseph F. Smith Library Archives and Special Collections, 1982.

45. 45. Māori scholar Robert Joseph is very active in this area of research.

46. 46. A marae is a courtyard space used for meeting and ritualized encounters; it has acquired a conventional meaning to refer to the complex (including meetinghouses, dining room, etc.) and is often understood as the ultimate space in which Māori protocols are paramount.

47. 47. Polynesian Cultural Centre, Polynesia in a Day (La‘ie, Hawai‘i: Polynesian Cultural Centre, 1969), 14. Haere mai means “welcome.”

48. 48. Ibid., 14.

49. 49. Ibid.

50. 50. Polynesian Cultural Centre, This Is Polynesia (La‘ie, Hawai‘i: Polynesian Cultural Centre, 1982), 11.

51. 51. The entwined fates of Indigenous groups and colonial nation-states are never far from view. This brochure includes information about “Special Cultural Days at the Polynesian Cultural Centre” and notes Waitangi Day (“Maori cultural day”) and Bastille Day (“Tahitian cultural day”) along with two Hawaiian holidays.

52. 52. Robert Sullivan, Albert Wendt, and Reina Whaitiri, Whetu Moana (Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University Press, 2003); Selina Tusitala Marsh, Niu Voices (Wellington, New Zealand: Huia, 2006); Kareva Mateata-Allain, Frank Stewart, and Alexander Mawyer, Vārua Tupu (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2006); Ku’ualoha Ho’omanawanui, ‘Ōiwi 3 (Honolulu, Hawai‘i: ‘Ōiwi Press, 2005).

53. 53. Frank Stewart, Kareva Mateata-Allain, and Alexander Dale Mawyer, eds., Vārua Tupu: New Writing from French Polynesia (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2006), front cover.

54. 54. Witi Ihimaera, “Kaupapa,” in Te Ao Mārama 1: Te Whakahuatanga O Te Ao, ed. Witi Ihimaera (Auckland, New Zealand: Reed, 1992), 15.

55. 55. Barbara M. Benedict, “The Paradox of the Anthology: Collecting and Difference in Eighteenth-century Britain,” New Literary History 34 (2003): 236.

56. 56. Wendt, “Towards a New Oceania,” 71.

57. 57. J. C. Sturm was the first Māori writer included in a collection of New Zealand fiction in 1966.

58. 58. Paula Morris, Words Chosen Carefully: New Zealand Writers in Discussion, ed. Siobhan Harvey (Auckland, New Zealand: Cape Catley Books, 2010), 186.

59. 59. Bernard Gadd, Pacific Voices: An Anthology of Writing by and about Pacific People (Albany, N.Y.: Stockton House, 1977).

60. 60. C. K. Stead, ed., The Faber Book of Contemporary South Pacific Stories (London: Faber, 1994).

61. 61. Vilsoni Hereniko and Sig Schwarz, “Four Writers and Once Critic,” in Inside Out: Literature, Culture, Politics, and Identity in the New Pacific, ed. V. Hereniko and R. Wilson, 55–64 (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999).

62. 62. Witi Ihimaera and D. S. Long, eds., Into the World of Light: An Anthology of Maori Writing (Auckland, New Zealand: Heinemann, 1982).

63. 63. Several other editors had already demonstrated deep commitment to, and familiarity with, literature in the Pacific, e.g., Paul Sharrad, Richard Hamasaki, and Don Long.

64. 64. And, perhaps, the recognition of the field as a field such that Faber’s book would have a potential readership.

65. 65. E.g., anthologies and collections from the Solomon Islands, Niue, and Sāmoa. Julian Maka’a, Hilda Kii, and Linda Crowl, eds., Raetem Aot: Creative Writing from Solomon Islands (Honiara: Solomon Island Writers Association/USP Centre Solomon Islands/South Pacific Creative Arts Society/Institute of Pacific Studies, 1996); Larry Thomas, Musings on Niue (Suva: Pacific Writing Forum, 1997); Sina Va’ai and Asofou So’o, eds., Tofa Sasa’a: Contemporary Short Stories of Samoa (Apia: National University of Samoa, 2002).

66. 66. Regional distribution is extremely variable. The Pacific is crisscrossed by various publishing networks, including the major split between North American and Commonwealth English language publishing (e.g., which affects my decision to publish with Minnesota), as well as the idiosyncrasies of small distribution networks. It can be much easier to purchase a text written hundreds of miles away than one from the next island. This is further complicated in the case of non-English-language publications in Indigenous languages and in other colonial languages of the Pacific, notably French.

67. 67. I am grateful to Vilsoni Hereniko, who encouraged me to think more carefully about my claims of Māori exclusion. Certainly Māori writers have better access to publishing (and related circulation) than most other Pacific writers, and so in a certain light, Māori texts can seem to stand in for (or even dominate) Pacific literature.

68. 68. All these nations are also the hosts of universities. Publication at the University of the South Pacific has been crucial to the dissemination of much Pacific writing through the distribution of single-author and multiple-author collections and the production of literary journals, of which Mana is preeminent. Unfortunately, the Institute for Pacific Studies Press at USP, which produced most of this work, has been closed down by that university; Vilsoni Hereniko is involved in establishing a replacement.

69. 69. As the biographies in Pacific anthologies demonstrate, Pacific writers live all over the world and, particularly, all around the region.

70. 70. There is a very strong bias for Polynesian texts in Pacific literary studies. Yet Polynesia itself is unevenly represented because Francophone and Hispanophone Polynesia are often excluded. Furthermore, texts from Papua New Guinea texts are dominant over other Melanesian material, and Micronesian material is particularly light. Emelihter Kihleng and Craig Santos Perez are actively engaged in bringing more Micronesian writers to publication, and a Guam-based journal, Storyboard, has published some Micronesian writers.

71. 71. Danielle O’Halloran and Felolini Maria Ifopo, Fika: First Draft Pasifika Writers (Christchurch, New Zealand: First Draft Pasifika Writers, 2008).

72. 72. Witi Ihimaera, “Kaupapa,” in Ihimaera, Te Ao Mārama 1, 18.

73. 73. Albert Wendt, Lali: A Pacific Anthology (Auckland, New Zealand: Longman Paul, 1980), xiii; emphasis added.

74. 74. Ibid., xii; emphasis added.

75. 75. Albert Wendt, Nuanua: Pacific Writing and English since 1980 (Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University Press, 1995), 3.

76. 76. Ibid., 1.

77. 77. Benedict, “Paradox of the Anthology,” 242.

78. 78. Wendt, Nuanua, 3.

79. 79. Additionally, diasporic writers are able to take their place as Pacific (or at least Polynesian) writers because the order of writers does not forcibly (and potentially restrictively) repatriate them to homelands.

2. Pacific-Based Māori Writers

1. 1. Evelyn Patuawa-Nathan is also known as (and published under) Evelyn Finney.

2. 2. Rewiti Kohere, The Autobiography of a Maori (Wellington, New Zealand: Reed, 1951). Hone Tuwhare, No Ordinary Sun (Auckland, New Zealand: Black-wood and Janet Paul, 1964). Witi Ihimaera, Pounamu Pounamu (Auckland, New Zealand: Longman Paul, 1975). Patricia Grace, Waiariki (Auckland, New Zealand: Longman Paul, 1975).

3. 3. Indeed, I bumped into Vernice’s book for the first time on the open-stack shelves in a library in Hawai‘i (at Brigham Young University–Hawai‘i [BYU-H]) when I was working on my PhD.

4. 4. Residence and citizenship do not always remove a writer from the New Zealand literary scene; e.g., Paula Morris, who lives outside New Zealand, and Sia Figiel, who is not a New Zealand citizen and lives outside New Zealand, are both celebrated as New Zealander.

5. 5. Vernice Wineera Pere, Mahanga: Pacific Poems (La‘ie: Institute for Polynesian Studies, Brigham Young University–Hawai‘i, 1978). The preface is written by Robert D Craig, Publications Editor, Institute for Polynesian Studies (this was later renamed Pacific Studies), BYU-H. Mahanga was published under the name Vernice Wineera Pere, although the poet now uses the name Vernice Wineera.

6. 6. Vernice Wineera Pere, Ka Po‘e o La‘ie (La‘ie, Hawai‘i: Polynesian Cultural Centre, 1979). The collection, published by the Polynesian Cultural Centre, comes out of the writing group Wineera helped establish in La‘ie. Because La‘ie has a Mormon undergraduate university and temple, the surrounding community is both transnational and multicultural. This collection certainly deserves greater attention in a separate project.

7. 7. Wineera Pere, Mahanga, 57.

8. 8. A tekoteko is a carved ancestor located at the apex of a meetinghouse.

9. 9. Although this comparison falls outside the scope of this book, I am working on a longer version of it elsewhere.

10. 10. Wineera Pere, Mahanga, 28.

11. 11. Wineera, Into the Luminous Tide. This poem circulated as an unpublished text for a number of years before it was published in this collection.

12. 12. A pipi is a small shellfish, and paua is Māori for abalone.

13. 13. Whakapapa is genealogy; as a verb, it literally means “to layer.”

14. 14. The relationship between tattoo and writing has been explored in various places around the Pacific. Hanlon reflects at length on the idea of writing as a form of tattoo in an essay about writing and history in the region. David Hanlon, “Beyond the English Method of Tattooing: Decentring the Practice of History in Oceania,” The Contemporary Pacific 15, no. 1 (2003): 19–40. Robert Sullivan, “The English Moko: Exploring a Spiral,” in Figuring the Pacific: Aotearoa New Zealand Cultural Studies, ed. Howard McNaughton and John Newton, 12–28 (Christchurch, New Zealand: Canterbury University Press, 2005). Rawinia Higgins and Ngahuia Te Awekotuku have produced excellent work on tā moko. Rawinia Higgins, “He tānga ngutu, he Tūhoetanga te Mana Motuhake o te tā moko wāhine: the identity politics of moko kauae,” PhD diss., University of Otago, Dunedin, 2004. Juniper Ellis, Tattooing the World: Pacific Designs in Print and Skin (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008).

15. 15. Whether the reader is included in the “we” is ambiguous in the English language (unlike, e.g., in Māori).

16. 16. Emphasis added.

17. 17. Evelyn Patuawa-Nathan, Opening Doors: A Collection of Poems (Raiwaqa, Fiji: South Pacific Creative Arts Society, 1979).

18. 18. Ibid.

19. 19. Within a Māori context, dawn is a highly symbolic and charged moment in which the relations between things are reconfigured and reconfigurable.

20. 20. A waka is a vessel or canoe or, contemporarily, the dominant mode of transport.

21. 21. Patuawa-Nathan, Opening Doors, 11–12.

22. 22. Interestingly, the location of Australia is upstaged by a distinctly Aotearoa-based cartographic sensibility: from the perspective of Sydney, “Northerners” are more easterly, and yet the “Northerners” retain their identification with regard to the geography of Aotearoa.

23. 23. Maoriness is signaled here by an obviously Māori name; the change would not be marked in the same way if Louise Santos used to be called “Lucy Smith.”

24. 24. Robert Sullivan, “a cover sail,” in Star Waka (Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University Press, 1999), inside cover.

25. 25. Sullivan’s Captain Cook in the Underworld is described in a subtitle as a “libretto of Orpheus in Rarohenga.”

26. 26. I am using the term originary to refer to the ideas that the English language describes variably as history and mythology, but these words have their own connotations and limits, and I am describing something that falls between the two.

27. 27. Chris Prentice, “‘A knife through time’: Robert Sullivan’s Star Waka and the Politics and Poetics of Cultural Difference,” Ariel: A Review of International English Literature 37, nos. 2–3 (2006): 111–35. Jon Battista, “Robert Sullivan’s ‘waka 100’: Inscribed by the Stars,” Graduate Journal of Asia Pacific Studies 5, no. 1 (2007): 58–70.

28. 28. Robert Sullivan, personal communication, 2004.

29. 29. A karakia is a prayer.

30. 30. The right of occupation as maintained by the continual keeping of fires in a particular place, now often used for people who reside in a tribal center or homeland.

31. 31. Emphasis added.

32. 32. Robert Sullivan, voice carried my family (Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University Press, 2005), 29.

33. 33. Ibid., 28.

34. 34. I acknowledge that some Māori communities claim to be in Aotearoa as a result of earlier migrations or through processes of autochthony.

35. 35. Lapita is a pottery form identified by archaeologists as an indicator of technological expansion (and thereby patterns of human expansion) around the Pacific.

36. 36. Sullivan, voice carried my family, 29.

37. 37. Ibid., 40.

38. 38. Vernice Wineera, preface to Ka Po‘e o La‘ie (La‘ie, Hawai‘i: Polynesian Cultural Centre, 1979), vii.

3. Aotearoa-Based Māori Writers

1. 1. Elizabeth DeLoughrey’s class at Cornell, The Transoceanic Imaginary, provided an opportunity for me to reflect on this dimension of the text.

2. 2. Hinewirangi, Kanohi ki te Kanohi (Wellington, New Zealand: Moana Press, 1990).

3. 3. Hone Tuwhare, Sapwood and Milk (Dunedin, New Zealand: Caveman, 1972).

4. 4. Apirana Taylor, “The Fale” and “In Samoa at Solaua Fatumanava,” in Sullivan et al., Whetu Moana, 213.

5. 5. Cathie Dunsford, Cowrie (North Melbourne, Australia: Spinifex, 1994).

6. 6. Cathie Dunsford, The Journey Home (North Melbourne, Australia: Spinifex, 1997).

7. 7. Cathie Dunsford, Manawa Toa/Heart Warrior (North Melbourne, Australia: Spinifex, 2000).

8. 8. Ambury Hall, Below the Surface: Word and Images in Protest at French Testing on Moruroa (Auckland, New Zealand: Vintage, 1995).

9. 9. Whale Rider, DVD, directed by Niki Caro (2002; Auckland, New Zealand: South Pacific Pictures, 2003).

10. 10. Witi Ihimaera, The Whale Rider (Auckland, New Zealand: Reed, 1987).

11. 11. The film was partially funded from German sources, a fact which may or may not have anything to do with Porourangi ending up with a blonde German partner instead of the Māori wife he marries in the novella.

12. 12. Two widely distributed major feature films depict Māori: Once Were Warriors and Whale Rider; perhaps The Piano would be another contender. If Māori had, as white Americans do (to take an extreme counterexample), multiple images of themselves in multiple medias, single films would not have to hold up to the amount of scrutiny to which we hold Whale Rider.

13. 13. Although the international and domestic press announced Whale Rider as a “Māori” story (all the speaking characters are Māori, the film’s narrative is based on a book by a Māori writer, and the mythological and cultural context of the narrative is purportedly “Māori” too), there are a number of compelling arguments that this is not, in fact, a Māori film. A number of other Māori scholars have engaged with the film, including Brendan Hokowhitu, Jo Smith, Tania Ka’ai, and Charise Schwalger.

14. 14. This discussion refers to the original 1987 edition of the novella. Subtle changes to the novella in the postfilm International edition detract from these aspects of the book.

15. 15. Atomic and nuclear testing is a major strand of pan-Pacific identity that structures The Whale Rider. Weapons testing by Euro–American powers in Pacific waters catalyzed both a renewed orientation of many Māori toward their Pacificness and an increasing realization in New Zealand about its Pacific location.

16. 16. In this case, “metropolitan” includes New Zealand.

17. 17. John Hovell’s illustrations mark the beginning of each of the parts of the novella: prologue, “Spring,” “Summer,” “Autumn,” “Winter,” and epilogue. These illustrations suggest a Pacific sensibility by drawing on the arts of various cultural groups: Rapanui, Aotearoa, Sāmoa, and Fiji.

18. 18. This is removed from the 2003 U.S. edition of the text. Instead, that detail is removed to a foreword in which Ihimaera describes the New York context of his decision to write the story.

19. 19. Separate italicized chapters are narrated from the perspective of the whales themselves.

20. 20. Ihimaera, Whale Rider, 50.

21. 21. Ibid.

22. 22. Ibid., 52.

23. 23. Ibid., 54.

24. 24. Although in the U.S. and some other contexts, native is used interchangeably with Indigenous, in the Antipodes, Native is an almost exclusively derogatory term.

25. 25. Despite its proximity to the Pacific region, Australia is often excluded from “the Pacific” because of the cultural and linguistic distinctiveness of Aboriginal communities from Melanesian–Micronesian–Polynesian communities. Torres Strait Islanders are a distinct case and do share links with Melanesians in Papua New Guinea.

26. 26. The duty owed a father by his son finds its parallel in the film, where Porourangi struggles against his father’s demands for him to stay home. (Porourangi in the novella is already committed to staying at home, and does so.)

27. 27. Ihimaera, Whale Rider, 54.

28. 28. Ibid.

29. 29. Ibid., 68.

30. 30. Ibid., 56.

31. 31. Emphasis added.

32. 32. Ibid.

33. 33. Reading the father’s disability in this way opens up possibilities for rethinking his “illness.” Could this physical ailment echo Seri Luangphininth’s claims about colonial madness? Seri Luangphinith, “Tropical Fevers: ‘Madness’ and Colonialism in Pacific Literature,” The Contemporary Pacific 16, no. 1 (2004): 59–85.

34. 34. Ihimaera, Whale Rider, 56.

35. 35. Ibid.

36. 36. Ibid., 56–57.

37. 37. Ibid., 57.

38. 38. Ibid., 56.

39. 39. Ibid.

40. 40. Ibid., 57. “Their reo was spoken in a thousand different tongues” suggests that a unitary language (“reo”) is divided into different “tongues,” which naturalizes the inherent singularity of the “national identity” in question. Problematic metaphors of “fracture” are frequently used to speak about multilingual nation-states in Melanesia.

41. 41. Iwi, literally bone, is usually translated as tribe; an iwi is a group of people who share an eponymous ancestor. Reo is language.

42. 42. The idea of so many years “in one lifetime” is alluded to in the title of the Papua New Guinea writer Albert Maori Kiki’s autobiography Ten Thousand Years in a Lifetime. Albert Maori Kiki, Ten Thousand Years in a Lifetime: A New Guinea Autobiography (Melbourne, Australia: Cheshire, 1968).

43. 43. Ihimaera, Whale Rider, 59.

44. 44. Ibid., 57.

45. 45. Ibid.

46. 46. Ibid., 59.

47. 47. Ibid. The sea is telling Rawiri to return to his homeplace.

48. 48. Ibid., 60.

49. 49. Ibid.

50. 50. Ibid.

51. 51. Ibid.

52. 52. Ibid.

53. 53. Ibid., 60–61.

54. 54. Ibid., 61.

55. 55. Ibid.

56. 56. Ibid.

57. 57. Ibid.

58. 58. Ibid.

59. 59. Ibid.

60. 60. Hinewirangi, Kanohi ki te Kanohi, 5. Various people (including, in Hinewirangi’s case, some Māori people) have various alternative reasons for their beliefs about Māori migration, and these narratives have truth value for their adherents.

61. 61. Ibid., 4–5.

62. 62. A kuia is an elderly woman; tikanga is protocols or conventional practices.

63. 63. Hinemoana Baker, Koiwi Koiwi (Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria University Press, 2010), 45.

The Realm of Tapa

1. 1. Chantal Spitz, Island of Shattered Dreams, trans. Jean Anderson (Wellington, New Zealand: Huia, 2007).

2. 2. Ibid., 121.

3. 3. Kaupapa is a foundation, principle, or motivation.

4. 4. Okalani is the Tongan transliteration of two major sites of the Tongan diaspora: Auckland and Oakland. The slippage between these two transliterations has been noted by several commentators.

5. 5. Aukilani is a generic Polynesian transliteration for Auckland. Tāmaki-makau-rau is the original Māori name for the area now known as Auckland (and as Aukilani).

6. 6. Ty P Kāwika Tengan, Native Men Remade: Gender and Nation in Contemporary Hawai‘i (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2008), 201–2.

7. 7. I am lumping together Māori who travel as individuals, Māori migrants who intend to return home, and Māori communities with roots in new places and acknowledge that this use of the word diaspora moves beyond the usual use of the word as it is found in scholarly work. A symposium at Victoria University of Wellington on this topic in November 2010 posed manurere as an alternate term for these experiences.

8. 8. Diasporic Māori writers are not restricted to their diasporic experiences; their works can be productively brought into existing and emerging conversations about Māori writing in English. For example, Vernice Wineera’s poem about apprehending an ancestral house after time away resonates with specific poems by Apirana Taylor and Katerina Mataira.

9. 9. Susan Davis and Russell Haley, eds., The Penguin Book of Contemporary New Zealand Short Stories (Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin, 1989).

10. 10. Māori have been traveling to—and living in—Australia since the early 1800s, when young men and women would board whaling and trading ships and put down roots across the Tasman. A new vocabulary arose, including the transliteration Poihākena for Port Jackson (Sydney) and Ahitereiria (Australia). “Loanwords Used in Māori-Language Newspapers” lists seventeen different transliterations for “Australia,” suggesting the extent of contexts in which the place was discussed. Jenifer Curnow, Ngapare K. Hopa, and Jane McRae, Rere Atu, Taku Manu! Discovering History, Language, and Politics in the Maori-Language Newspapers (Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University Press, 2002). I am working elsewhere on the Māori individuals who stayed with Marsden at his seminary in Parramatta, as are Kuni Jenkins and Alison Jones.

11. 11. Ihimaera, Whale Rider, 51. Kia ora is an informal greeting. (It can also express thanks, agreement, or support.)

12. 12. As well as Māori individuals and whānau scattered around the globe, Māori communities such as Ngāti Rānana (London), the Māori Anglican Fellowship Te Wairua Tapu in Newtown (Sydney), long-standing Māori families in Parramatta (Sydney), and the Mormon enclaves in Hawai‘i, Las Vegas, and Utah have long historical roots in their new homes.

13. 13. Jean Riki, “Te Wa Kainga: Home,” in Waiting in Space: An Anthology of Australian Writing, 18–24 (Annandale, NSW: Pluto Press, 1999). Kelly Joseph, “Transient,” in Huia Short Fiction 5, 147–149 (Wellington, New Zealand: Huia, 2003).

14. 14. Craig Womack, Red on Red: Native American Literary Separatism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999).

15. 15. Transactions of the New Zealand Institute XLV (1912): 375–84.

Introduction to Part 2: Koura

1. 1. “Otara Mystery Man Stars at Te Papa,” Manukau Courier, September 3, 2007, http://www.stuff.co.nz/auckland/4188503a6016.html.

2. 2. “Te Papa Mystery Man Revealed,” Manukau Courier, September 5, 2007, http://www.stuff.co.nz/auckland/46279.

3. 3. Ibid.

4. 4. TV3 News, http://www.tv3.co.nz/.

5. 5. Māori men are rendered ethnically identifiable in Polynesian Cultural Centre publicity by the application of a facial tattoo.

6. 6. Dave Burgess, “Now You See Him, Now You Don’t,” Dominion Post, September 25, 2007, http://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/arts/21689.

7. 7. The phrase “someone who is Pacific Island” indicates the lack of familiarity with rather basic codes of reference. “Pacific Island” is not usually used in this way in New Zealand: one would expect adjectival forms such as “Pacific Islands,” “Pacific Islander,” or “Pacific,” or perhaps one of the various spellings of “Pasifika.”

8. 8. This is also true for Māori with citizenships other than New Zealand. (New Zealand citizenship is rather more complicated in Sāmoa, Niue, the Cook Islands, and Toklelau, where New Zealand has been, and in some cases continues to be, an explicit colonial power.)

9. 9. Louise Mataia, “‘Odd Men from the Pacific’: The Participation of Pacific Island Men in the 20th Maori Battalion 1939–1945,” MA thesis, University of Otago, 2007.

10. 10. Alongside Campbell’s poetry, we might consider Haviliviliaga Manatu, a collection of poems from Niue that recalls relatives signing up for deployment in World War I, although none of the poems mentions a Māori presence in that war. Haviliviliaga Manatu (Alofi, Niue: Tohitohi Nukutuluea, 1999).

11. 11. Thanks to my cousin Hawea Tomoana for affirming this insight.

12. 12. Gina Tekulu, “Te Aute College,” Te Ao Hou 64 (September 1968): 56–57. Tekulu’s article describes the history and present standing of the school but does not mention the presence of Pacific students. An article by another Te Aute student in the same issue reports on Gina’s accomplishments in athletics: “This year’s winner is Gina Tekulu. He stands there concentrating and looking seriously at the bar as if to say, ‘I’ll tell you who’s master.’ Unfortunately he doesn’t break that record, but equals it. In a way I’m glad, because that record still belongs to a Maori.” Frank Heperi, Te Ao Hou 64 (September 1968): 52; emphasis added.

13. 13. Teupoko I. Morgan, Vainetini Kuki Airani Cook Islands Women Pioneers: Early Experiences in Aotearoa New Zealand (Tokoroa, New Zealand: Anau Ako Pasifika, 2001), 20.

14. 14. Ibid., 15.

15. 15. Linda Nikora treats some of this history in her PhD dissertation. Linda Waimarie Nikora, “Māori Social Identities in New Zealand and Hawai‘i,” PhD diss., University of Waikato, 2007.

16. 16. Morgan, Vainetini Kuki Airani, 20.

17. 17. The place of Pasifika and Māori in New Zealand national identity is earnestly discussed in the realm of sports, especially with regard to rugby union and rugby league (e.g., the appearance of Pasifika and Māori rugby players in Island Nation teams, New Zealand teams, and non-Pacific teams such as Wales, Australia, Italy, and France).

18. 18. “Tokelauans Welcomed to New Zealand,” Te Ao Hou 58 (March 1967): 32–33.

4. Māori–Pasifika Collaborations

1. 1. South Sea Island Festival: His Majesty’s Theatre, Sat Dec 18th, 1943 (Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland Service Print, 1943).

2. 2. Look to David Chappell’s and Keith Vincent Smith’s work for elaboration of this history. In Albert Wendt’s novel The Mango’s Kiss, Arona leaves his family in Sāmoa around the turn of the twentieth century to work on boats around the Pacific and beyond; he ends up being involved in criminal activities and lives in hiding in early-twentieth-century New Zealand. David Chappell, Double Ghosts: Oceanian Voyagers on Euroamerican Ships (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharp, 1977). Keith Smith, “Mari Nawi (Big Canoes): Aboriginal Voyagers in Australia’s Maritime History, 1788–1855,” PhD diss., Macquarie University, 2008. Albert Wendt, The Mango’s Kiss (Auckland, New Zealand: Vintage, 2003).

3. 3. Although some individual writers in Polynation are well known, the group itself is not.

4. 4. Hau’ofa, “Our Sea of Islands,” 34. Note that Hau’ofa uses the Māori term tangata whenua in this configuration.

5. 5. Burn This CD was a collaboration of music, poetry, a radio play, and interviews about the police raids of October 15, 2007, that was not formally published. All the people involved signed away their rights so that no one holds copyright to the material.

6. 6. Radio New Zealand, Te Ahi Kaa Programme Catalogue, November 4, 2007, http://www.radionz.co.nz/national/programmes/teahikaa3/20071104 (accessed September 8, 2008).

7. 7. Roma Potiki, the main organizer, spoke about this fund-raiser at the 2005 Stout Centre symposium, which commemorated the twentieth anniversary of Hulme’s Booker Prize.

8. 8. Likewise, TVNZ produces the program Tagata Pasifika, and it airs on that channel late on a weeknight, whereas Māori TV replays the show at prime time on Saturday evenings.

9. 9. Huinga Rangatahi o Aotearoa, Rongo (Auckland, New Zealand: Brian McDonald, Ngahuia Volkerling, and John Miller, 1973).

10. 10. Ibid., 2.

11. 11. In 1978, the same organization that produced Rongo produced a document Maori Language Week Hepetema 14–22 with the Department of Education.

12. 12. Whina Cooper led the now famous Hīkoi, or Land March, in 1975. A direct outcome of this massive feat of peaceful protest was the Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975, which established the Waitangi Tribunal.

13. 13. Chadwick Allen includes Rongo in the chronology that forms an appendix in his book Blood Narrative.

14. 14. “The Islands of the Pacific.”

15. 15. Huinga Rangatahi o Aotearoa, Rongo, 2.

16. 16. Kōrero means to speak, discuss, or talk.

17. 17. Huinga Rangatahi o Aotearoa, Rongo, 14.

18. 18. Ibid.

19. 19. Thanks to Richie Tuhipa and his anonymous cousin for confirming this point for me.

20. 20. I am grateful to Arini Loader for this insight.

21. 21. Because of the limits of my language skills, I have not worked with the Tongan-, Samoan-, or Niuean-language parts of Rongo but look forward to supporting scholars and students who have the capacity to work with this publication. One effect of this limitation is that the treatment of Rongo is somewhat lopsided here.

22. 22. Huinga Rangatahi o Aotearoa, Rongo, 5.

23. 23. Melani Anae, with Lautofa (Ta) Iuli and Leilani Burgoyne, Polynesian Panthers: The Crucible Years, 1971–74 (Auckland, New Zealand: Reed, 2006), 73.

24. 24. The orality of hip-hop interrupts the supposed binary between tradition–orality and modernity–print. Often the emergence of new written forms of Māori—and Pacific—cultural production are inadvertently contextualized by a progress narrative that relies on a linear historical shift from oral to written literatures.

25. 25. Nesian Mystic, Polysaturated, compact disc, Bounce Records, 2002.

26. 26. “Lost Visionz,” ibid.

27. 27. I am using “urban Māori” very broadly here to include people whose home-lands have been concreted over by cities as well as people who moved from rural to urban areas. The existence of the former group is undermined when the dominant use of the term refers only to the latter.

28. 28. Note the repeated use of the indefinite article: “a Polynesian” is as achievable an identification as “a Tongan.”

29. 29. Similarly, Losttribe’s track “Summer in the Winter,” Aotearoa Hip Hop 1, compact disc, BMG, 1998, repeats the refrain “Don’t let the sun go down / Polynesians all around the world.” Foregrounding the experiences of Pacific diasporic communities is a feature of much Pasifika hip-hop.

30. 30. Doug Poole, Polynation—Queensland Poetry Festival, compact disc, August 23, 2008.

31. 31. Doug Poole, “Polynation at the Queensland Poetry Festival,” unpublished, September 15, 2008.

32. 32. Ibid.

33. 33. The report by Dr. Greg Clydesdale, a Massey University economics academic, which concluded that Pacific people have a negative impact on the New Zealand economy, gained widespread media attention in 2008.

34. 34. Poole, “Polynation at the Queensland Poetry Festival.”

35. 35. Repeating this claim—“we are Polynation”—brings its truth into being. Furthermore, when the word polynation is repeated aurally, it seems to slip into Polynesian.

36. 36. Poole, Polynation.

37. 37. Poole, “Polynation at the Queensland Poetry Festival.”

38. 38. This idea of a space between anxiety and confidence is drawn from Roma Potiki’s essay of a similar title, “The Journey from Anxiety to Confidence,” in Ihimaera, Te Ao Mārama 2, 314–19.

5. ”It’s Like That with Us Maoris”

1. 1. Apirana Taylor, He Rau Aroha: A Hundred Leaves of Love (Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin, 1986).

2. 2. Apirana Taylor, Eyes of the Ruru (Wellington, New Zealand: Voice Press, 1979).

3. 3. Ibid., 81.

4. 4. Ibid.

5. 5. Ibid.

6. 6. Ibid.

7. 7. Ibid. Indeed, this cliché is sometimes mobilized to sideline Māori claims of exceptionalism on the basis of Indigeneity. This is treated more fully in the concluding section of this book.

8. 8. Ibid., 82.

9. 9. Ibid.

10. 10. Ibid.

11. 11. Ibid.

12. 12. Ibid.

13. 13. Ibid., 83.

14. 14. Fa’asāmoa is “the Samoan way”—the cultural practices and values of Sāmoa.

15. 15. Taylor, Eyes of the Ruru, 83.

16. 16. Ibid.

17. 17. Ibid.

18. 18. Patricia Grace, Watercress Tuna and the Children of Champion Street (Auckland, New Zealand: Puffin, 1985).

19. 19. “Tuna” is the Māori name for an eel; it is not the same as the tuna you find in tins at the supermarket.

20. 20. New Zealand school journals and similar school-targeted publications treat these communities too. One prolific contributor to the journals for many years was Johnny Frisbie, originally from Pukapuka (Cook Islands), who is credited as the first Pacific writer in English. Florence Frisbie, Miss Ulysses from Pukapuka (New York: Macmillan, 1948).

21. 21. The existence and influence of entities from preurban Wellington landscapes (here, a tuna with the “magic throat” in the late-twentieth-century neighborhood of Cannon’s Creek) is a feature of Grace’s adult fiction too. In her first novel, Mutuwhenua, a Māori woman is unsettled by spiritual entities in the Wellington landscape to which she moves. Patricia Grace, Mutuwhenua: The Moon Sleeps (Auckland, New Zealand: Longman Paul, 1978). In Cousins, Wellington-based institution-raised Mata is less sensitive to the spiritual dimension of the cityscape than her cousin Makareta, who was raised with their whanau. Patricia Grace, Cousins (Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin, 1992). The Māori spiritual dimension of urban areas could be attributed to Grace’s Te Ātiawa and Ngāti Toa ancestry (these iwi have tūrangawaewae in Wellington–Porirua) and challenges the assumption that rural = Māori and urban = Pākehā.

22. 22. Grace, Watercress Tuna, n.p. Although “Champion Street” is the name of a real street, in the Māori translation of the book, this is translated (“te Tiriti Toa”) rather than transliterated or left in English.

23. 23. Ibid.

24. 24. Likewise, no children clearly come from a mixed family. Perhaps this can be attributed to the moment in which Grace wrote the book and the politics around language retention and maintenance at the time. After all, this book was published around the time the first Kōhanga Reo were being set up!

25. 25. Hokulani Aikau’s work on the Polynesian diaspora in Utah undertakes a fascinating consideration of the relationship between patterns of displaying decorative cultural objects and class. Poutama is a design from traditional decorative tukutuku panels, and wakahuia is a carved treasure box.

26. 26. Porirua, and in particular Porirua East–Cannons Creek, is marked in mainstream discourse as one of the notorious urban neighborhoods in New Zealand.

27. 27. Houses owned by the government and rented to low-income families.

28. 28. Grace’s former career as a schoolteacher, and her frustration with the books available for her students, is significant here.

29. 29. Briar Grace-Smith, “Te Manawa,” in The Six Pack, 17–33 (Auckland: New Zealand Book Month, 2006).

30. 30. Ibid., 17.

31. 31. Ibid., 18.

32. 32. Ibid.

33. 33. Ibid., 19.

34. 34. Ibid.

35. 35. Ibid., 22.

36. 36. Ibid., 23.

37. 37. Ibid.

38. 38. Ibid., 26.

39. 39. Ibid.

40. 40. Ibid., 30.

41. 41. Ibid.

42. 42. Ibid.

43. 43. Ibid.

44. 44. Ibid., 19–20.

45. 45. Another contemporary writer who could be included in this discussion is Paula Morris. Queen of Beauty (Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin, 2002), for which she won the New Zealand Society of Authors Hubert Church Best First Book Award in 2003, included one minor Pasifika character, after which Morris created a more central and complex Pasifika character in Siaki, one of the key people in her 2005 novel Hibiscus Coast (Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin, 2005). Finally, there is a kindly older man called Uncle Suli in her short story “Red Christmas” who lends his van to some young Māori siblings who go out looking through household rubbish and furniture that has been left outside for collection. Paula Morris, “Red Christmas,” in Forbidden Cities, 127–40 (Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin, 2008).

6. Manuhiri, Fānau

1. 1. Karlo Mila, Dream Fish Floating (Wellington, New Zealand: Huia, 2005).

2. 2. Albert Wendt, The Songmaker’s Chair (Wellington, New Zealand: Huia, 2004).

3. 3. Nofo, a Samoan cognate of the Māori noho, means to sit or live or remain in a specific place.

4. 4. Wendt, Songmaker’s Chair, 96.

5. 5. While I am not directly treating his work here, in a later project, I look forward to carefully considering his work in this regard. To mention but a few of his relevant works, in Ola, the central character forms a close friendship with a Māori woman and her whanau and partly locates her own story in (parallel or entangled) relation to them; in the historical novel The Mango’s Kiss, a key Samoan character lives undercover in New Zealand and marries a Māori woman; finally, in his recent magnum opus The Adventures of Vela, he includes references to Aotearoa in his epic treatment of Samoan deities and history. Albert Wendt, Ola (Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin, 1991). Albert Wendt, Mango’s Kiss. Albert Wendt, The Adventures of Vela (Wellington, New Zealand: Huia, 2009). Niuean writer John Pule also peoples his urban Auckland landscape with Māori families. John Puhiatau Pule, The Shark That Ate the Sun = Ko E Mago Ne Kai E La (Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin Books, 1992).

6. 6. Alistair Te Ariki Campbell, Island to Island (Christchurch, New Zealand: Whitcoulls, 1984).

7. 7. Ihimaera, Into the World of Light.

8. 8. Robert Sullivan, “Savaiki Regained: Alistair Te Ariki Campbell’s Poetics,” MA thesis, University of Auckland, 2006.

9. 9. Alistair Te Ariki Campbell, Maori Battalion: A Poetic Sequence (Wellington, New Zealand: Wai-te-Ata Press, 2001).

10. 10. Ibid., 5.

11. 11. Ibid., 101–3.

12. 12. Campbell, Island to Island, 83.

13. 13. Alistair Te Ariki Campbell, “A Childhood in the Islands,” in Just Poetry, 7–8 (Wellington: HeadworX, 2007).

14. 14. This poem responds to the racist term darkie, which Paul Holmes used on a nationally broadcast radio breakfast show in 2003 to refer to Kofi Annan, then head of the United Nations.

15. 15. Karlo Mila, “Eating Dark Chocolate While Watching Paul Holmes’ Apology,” in Mila, Dream Fish Floating, 43–45.

16. 16. Tauiwi is a term sometimes engaged to mean “all who are not Indigenous” and sometimes to refer only to Pākehā.

17. 17. Jo Smith, “At the Limits of the Seeable and Sayable: Identity Politics and New Zealand Film Studies,” paper presented at the MediaNZ Conference, Wellington, February 8, 2007.

18. 18. Karlo Mila, “On One Tree Hill Falling,” in Mila, Dream Fish Floating, 57.

7. When Romeo Met Tusi

1. 1. Politically, some Pasifika communities and organizations have formally acknowledged the Indigenous position of Māori in the nation-state of New Zealand. McIntosh, “Hibiscus in the Flax Bush.”

2. 2. Indigenousness (this word is an unusual construction in the Māori language too).

3. 3. Miria George’s And What Remains uses this convention to great effect with the relationship between a Māori and a Pākehā character. Miria George, And What Remains (Wellington, New Zealand: Tawata, 2007).

4. 4. Certainly Albert Wendt’s Sons for the Return Home (Auckland, New Zealand: Longman Paul, 1973) presents the story of a young man whose intimate relationships with a Pākehā woman and a Sāmoan woman parallel his relationships with their respective cultures.

5. 5. Wendt’s Sons for the Return Home explores the mutual prejudice of Māori and Pasifika communities through a Samoan–Palagi couple, and that text is certainly part of the background of this exploration.

6. 6. Oscar Kightley, as cited in Michael Neill, “From the Editor,” Shakespeare Quarterly 52, no. 4 (2001): iii.

7. 7. Although I am reading these as Māori–Pasifika relationships, in all these cases, the pairing is specifically of a Māori boy with a Samoan girl.

8. 8. Erolia Ifopo and Oscar Kightley, Romeo and Tusi (Wellington, New Zealand: Playmarket, 2000). The play was also performed in Auckland in 1999.

9. 9. Vilsoni Hereniko, Woven Gods, Female Clowns, and Power in Rotuma (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1995).

10. 10. Caroline Sinavaiana-Gabbard, “Where the Spirits Laugh Last: Comic Theater in Samoa,” in Inside Out: Literature, Cultural Politics, and Identity in the New Pacific, ed. Vilsoni Hereniko and Rob Wilson (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999), 183.

11. 11. Ibid., 183–84.

12. 12. The New Zealand police raids of October 15, 2007, add another layer here.

13. 13. E.g., the dance company Black Grace was also known to engage directly with the audience.

14. 14. New Zealand audiences often find themselves racially misreading the Māori actor Cliff Curtis to engage with the logic of overseas films in which he portrays Arabic, Mexican, and black characters, a phenomenon that the Brotown episode “A Maori at My Table” satirizes and that Jani Wilson treats in her thesis, “The Cinematic Economy of Cliff Curtis,” MA thesis, University of Auckland, 2006. In No. 2, the film based on the play of the same name by Toa Fraser, audiences engaged in the opposite process, needing to believe that well-known Māori, Tongan, and Samoan actors were all members of the same Fijian family, whose matriarch was the African American actor Ruby Dee. The struggle to override this proved impossible for many. No. 2, DVD, directed by Toa Fraser (2007; South Yarra, Australia: Buena Vista Home Entertainment, 2007).

15. 15. The Market, first broadcast September 15, 2005, by TVNZ. Directed by Rene Naufahu, Damon Fepulea’i, and Geoff Cawthorn and written by Rene Naufahu, Brett Ihaka, and Matthew Grainger.

16. 16. T-shirt logos have been used dynamically in Pasifika communities as a marker of identity, often using Pacific-centric language and images and humor that subvert or extend mainstream or commercial logos. Many such small businesses sell their wares at the Ōtara flea market (and elsewhere), and artists such as Shigeyuki Kihara and Siliga David Setoga have brought the Pasifika subversion of brand names, logos, and capitalism into other spaces. Daniel Maaka’s locally produced sweatshirt is an important forerunner of this phenomenon.

17. 17. The words were composed by Hirini Melbourne.

18. 18. I am grateful to Teresia Teaiwa for sharing this insight with me.

19. 19. Uncle Ronnie sells rotten fish at his fish shop in the Ōtara town center, a detail that reinforces his moral decay and his dealings with the line between life and death. Significantly, his space of decay and bodily disintegration is where he and Ngaire carry out their sexual affair.

20. 20. There are also minor Asian characters in the series.

21. 21. Note Romeo and Tusi’s talk show and the final item of Once Were Samoans set in Samoa, which was already narratively implied by the last scene set in New Zealand.

22. 22. Later, Mike taunts his father for his passivity and calls him “disgusting.”

23. 23. Damon Salesa’s arguments for a reading of a New Zealand empire are useful here. Damon Salesa, “New Zealand’s Pacific,” in The New Oxford History of New Zealand, ed. Giselle Byrnes, 149–72 (South Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 2009). Because of New Zealand’s colonial role in the Pacific, Samoan, Niuean, Cook Islander, and Tokelauan people have had access to New Zealand citizenship. These communities, along with Moriori, are an Indigenous presence within New Zealand’s political territory; however, although the state’s boundaries have included these places at specific times, the communities have not occupied space understood to be “New Zealand” in the dominant imaginary.

The Realm of Koura

1. 1. A pou is a carved figure; these line the inside walls of a carved house.

2. 2. Tupuna (in some places, tipuna) is an ancestor.

3. 3. Ranginui and Papatūānuku are the Sky and Earth, respectively.

4. 4. The supporting post of the house.

5. 5. Spasifik Magazine, http://www.spasifikmag.com/latestupdates_13feb09pasifikafestival/ (accessed March 13, 2009).

6. 6. Pasifika 1999 (Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland City Council and Festival Komiti, 1999), Auckland City Archives AKC310/11m.

7. 7. Komiti is a Polynesian transliteration for “committee.”

8. 8. Auckland City Council and Festival Komiti, loose paper Festival Komiti notes, Auckland: Council Organised Events/Pasifika Events/vol 17, February 1999, Auckland City Archives.

9. 9. Pasifika ’98 Evaluation, 1998, Auckland City Council and Festival Komiti, Auckland City Archives AKC307/132g .

10. 10. Pasifika Festival Komiti, minutes, November 4, 1999, Auckland City Archives AKC307/134a.

11. 11. Ibid.

12. 12. Pasifika 2005 (Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland City Council and Festival Komiti, 2005), Auckland City Archives AKC310/11ae.

13. 13. Pasifika 2007 (Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland City Council and Festival Komiti, 2007), Auckland City Archives AKC310/24s.

14. 14. Auckland City Council, “Pasifika,” http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/what-son/events/pasifika/default.asp.

15. 15. Someone like me, for example, has a very different sense of these connections than would someone whose experiences have been in predominantly Māori or Māori-and-Pākehā places. See Māori scholar Tracey McIntosh’s pertinent essay “Growing South,” http://www.alumni.auckland.ac.nz/2497.html (accessed October 15, 2007).

16. 16. Alice Tawhai’s short stories and Paula Morris’s fiction are important urban voices, as are many of the writers included in the Huia collections.

17. 17. We might also consider the resonances between Hawaiki and Aztlan as an imagined homeland that exists outside of and yet in many ways coincident to the present space.

18. 18. E.g., in her work on northern California, Renya Ramirez acknowledges the many Indigenous communities layered around a single urban space. Renya Ramirez, Native Hubs: Culture, Community, and Belonging in Silicon Valley and Beyond (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007).

19. 19. Kealani Cook, “Sea of Islanders: Non-local Pacific Islanders and Pacific History,” paper presented at the Pacific Worlds and the American West Conference, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 9, 2008.

20. 20. Ibid.

21. 21. Sione’s Wedding has been distributed as A Samoan Wedding outside New Zealand.

22. 22. Made in Taiwan: Oscar and Nathan’s Excellent Adventure, televised documentary directed by Dan Salmon (2006; Auckland, New Zealand: George Andrews Productions).

23. 23. Rangatahi o Aotearoa, Rongo, 5.

24. 24. Back2Basics: HiphopNZ Forums, “Discussion Thread: Do You Know This Man?” http://back2basics.hiphopnz.com (accessed January 14, 2009). The quotes that follow in this section are all from the same thread. I have included all quotes verbatim; the irregularities in spelling and grammar are in the original versions. However, I have also used dashes in place of profanity in these quotations because of the range of sensibilities of a Pacific readership.

Conclusion

1. 1. Sullivan, voice carried my family, 28.

2. 2. Ibid., 27.

3. 3. Michel Tuffery: First Contact (Porirua, New Zealand: Pataka Museum, 2007), n.p.

4. 4. Ibid.

5. 5. Karen Stevenson, “Michel Tuffery First Contact,” in ibid.

6. 6. The European “discovery” of the Pacific was a combination of scientific research (Cook had botanists, astronomers, etc., on board) and a desire to find a more economically agreeable method of extracting resources and bringing them to Europe. Of course, a fair amount of biblical “knowing” took place during these Pacific voyages too!

7. 7. That kūmara (sweet potato) is tied to knowledge has already been discussed. Ika most commonly means “fish” (the noun, not the verb), but Te Ahukaramū Charles Royal suggests that fish is a metaphor for ideas; the appearances in the oral traditions of ika are therefore about the pursuit of understanding, innovation, knowledge acquisition, and theoretical debate.

8. 8. Robert Sullivan pointed out to me that it appeared to Māori that Tupaia provided translation and navigational services to Cook. I wonder if this emphasizes the role of Pacific practitioners and scholars already operating within the university system whose ability to operate within many knowledge spheres earns them not only a place on the ship (Tupaia was highly respected by the Europeans on board, especially Cook) but also recognition of a place within the academic structure.

9. 9. Special thanks to Brandy Nālani McDougall for pushing and encouraging me to explore this dimension of the metaphor.

10. 10. I am talking about Pacific scholarly legacy here: the actual number of positions occupied by Indigenous Pacific people in universities worldwide and regionwide is sadly far less than it could or should be.

11. 11. Margaret Orbell, trans., “Two Manuscripts of Te Rangikaheke,” Te Ao Hou 62 (March 1968): 11. Original Source is GNZMMSS 45. The translation for this phrase is “I am from Hawaiki.”

12. 12. Ibid. “This is an account written in Māori to you, the people of Hawaiki, to acquaint you with these matters.”

13. 13. “You have told me that you and your relatives own a ship. When you return home to Hawaiki, ask for your ship to be loaded with food for me, so that I may eat the food of the place from which our ancestors came in former times.”

14. 14. Harold B. Carter, “Note on the Drawings by an Unknown Artist from the Voyage of HMS Endeavour,” in Science and Exploration in the Pacific, ed. Margarette Lincoln (Woodbridge, U.K.: Boydell Press, 1998), 133–34.

15. 15. Titaua Porcher is a Tahitian literary scholar I met in Auckland at the Cultural Crossings: Negotiating Identities in Francophone and Anglophone Pacific Literatures/A la croisée des cultures: de la négociation des identités dans les littératures francophones et anglophones du Pacifique conference, which was held in November 2008.

16. 16. Grace, Mutuwhenua, 100.

17. 17. Powhiri Rika-Heke, “Margin or Center? Let Me Tell You! In the Land of My Ancestors I Am the Centre: Indigenous Writing in Aotearoa,” in English Post-coloniality from Around the World, ed. Radhika Mohanram and Gita Rajan, 147–64 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1996). Chadwick Allen, Blood Narrative: Indigenous Identity in American Indian and Maori Literary and Activist Texts (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002).

18. 18. By the time Ihimaera’s Pounamu Pounamu was published in 1972, for example, Tuwhare was already on to his third collection of poetry, J. C. Sturm had been anthologized in a collection of New Zealand writing, and many writers had published creative work in Te Ao Hou and elsewhere.

19. 19. Penny van Toorn, Writing Never Arrives Naked: Early Aboriginal Cultures of Writing in Australia (Canberra, Australia: Aboriginal Studies Press, 2006), 2.

20. 20. Lisa Brooks, “Digging at the Roots: Locating an Ethical, Native Criticism,” in Reasoning Together: The Native Critics Collective, ed. Craig S. Womack, Daniel Heath Justice, and Christopher B. Teuton, 234–64 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008).

21. 21. I am presently undertaking a project called “Ghost Writers,” which explores the work of early Māori writers Mowhee, Teeterree, Kooley, etc.

22. 22. Patuawa-Nathan, Opening Doors. I have started to think of this novel as a spectral presence, paving the way for Māori people writing in English.

23. 23. Vincent Eri, The Crocodile (Milton, Australia: Jacaranda Press, 1970).

24. 24. I am following up this story of Patuawa-Nathan’s missing novel in another project.

25. 25. Manuscript Notes of Peter H. Buck, MS SC BUCK Box 2.29, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawai‘i.

26. 26. I have written about this in greater detail in “The Historian Who Lost His Memory: A Story about Stories,” Te Pouhere Kōrero 3 (2009): 63–82.

27. 27. David Chappell, Double Ghosts: Oceanian Voyagers on Euroamerican Ships (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharp, 1997). I am conducting further research on Mowhee in another project and acknowledge that Kuni Jenkins and Alison Jones are looking at him from the perspective of early Māori literacy.

28. 28. Basil Woodd, Memoir of Mowhee, a Youth from New Zealand Who Died at Paddington, December 28, 1816; Serious Thoughts on Eternity (Cornhill, Mass.: Samuel T. Armstrong and Crocker and Brewster, 1821).

29. 29. Another extension of Māori writing in English is that writing was self-consciously produced in European literary forms in the earlier twentieth century but has fallen out of memory either because of the venue in which it was published or because it exists only in prepublished forms. Chadwick Allen has meticulously researched Māori self-representation in the 1950s, and Jane Stafford has done some work on a single poem by Apirana Ngata. Jane Stafford, “Terminal Creeds and Native Authors,” Journal of New Zealand Literature 24, no. 2 (2007): 153–84. With Jane Stafford and Mark Williams, Māoriland: New Zealand Literature 1872–1914 (Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria University Press, 2006).

30. 30. Grace, Mutuwhenua, 100.

31. 31. It is difficult to be accurate about this number because information about Māori is collected differently in the different states within which they live; some census data collapse Māori into Pacific or New Zealand categories.

32. 32. In her outstanding doctoral work on Māori experiences in the city, Melissa Williams explores the limits of conventional narratives about urban Māori.

33. 33. Paul Meredith is an avid scholar of this material. See also work by Lachy Paterson and scholars included in Curnow et al., Rere atu, taku manu!

34. 34. Arini Loader, “Haere Mai me Tuhituhi he Pukapuka: Reading Te Rangikāheke,” MA thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 2009.

35. 35. Don Brash’s speech was titled “Nationhood” and was presented at the Orewa Rotary Club on January 27, 2004.

36. 36. Alec Hutchinson, “Worlds Apart,” New Zealand Listener, March 4–10, 2006.

37. 37. This genetic research “finally” providing “scientific evidence” about the peopling of the Pacific bears striking parallels to Te Rangihiroa’s ethnographic work, which was also understood as scientific evidence. It is easy to forget that ethnography was considered a real science: indeed, one of Te Rangihiroa’s honorary degrees is a DSc.

38. 38. Aileen Moreton-Robinson’s work on the possessive logic of whiteness is an important connection here.

39. 39. Similarly, the ownership of water and the seabed and foreshore in New Zealand has been asserted as a taken-for-granted right of citizens against which Māori claims are then understood to impose, although the “ownership” of these had never been legally conferred in the New Zealand state. (This misunderstanding is the basis of the Seabed and Foreshore furore that began in 2003.) Similarly, note recent protests against so-called foreign ownership of New Zealand farmland.

40. 40. Prime Minister Helen Clark described the organizers of the peaceful Hikoi (march) against the proposed Seabed and Foreshore legislation as “haters and wreckers.” “Helen Clark Slams Hikoi,” TVNZ.co.nz, May 4, 2004, http://tvnz.co.nz/view/news_story_skin/424042.

41. 41. Although this echoes the distinction Te Papa articulates between being “Pacific Island” and being “Pacific Island in origin,” the Te Papa case is about Māori inclusion in the “Pacific,” whereas this is about Māori inclusion in the state.

42. 42. Sometimes this logic is extended so that Indigenous people are anachronistically described as “first” citizens of their particular nation-states—First Australians, First Canadians, First Americans—which assimilates the Indigenous communities into their respective occupying nation-states as always-already citizens of a settler-nation-to-come rather than as always-already nations invaded by a trespassing group.

43. 43. Rewiti Kohere (RTK), “Kei Hea Hawaiki,” Te Kopara 81 (1920), http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=niupepa&l=mi&nw=utf-8.

44. 44. “There is more than one Hawaiki.” Translation Arini Loader.

45. 45. Ngāti Kahungunu Iwi Inc., “Supporting Indigenous Rights through Takitimu Fest,” Scoop: Independent News, October 9, 2008, http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/CU0810/S00114.htm.

46. 46. Tino rangatiratanga was used in the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi to describe what Māori retained and is often translated “sovereignty”; mana motuhake is a non-Treaty concept that includes sovereignty and is often translated as “self-determination.”

Epilogue

1. 1. Taranaki whānui ki te  Ūpoko o te Ika is the name used for the purposes of the Port Nicholson Block Claim, which represents a group of Taranaki-derived iwi with links to the Wellington region: Te Ātiawa, Taranaki, Ngāti Ruanui, Ngāti Tama, and Ngāti Mutunga. Taranaki whānui is not itself an iwi.

2. 2. Kaitiakitanga is stewardship or guardianship.

3. 3. Ngugi wa Thiong’o, “Decolonising the Mind: A Conversation about Culture, Power, and Translation,” roundtable, University of Hawai‘i English Department, April 2008.

4. 4. Wineera Pere, Mahanga.