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table of contents
  1. Cover
  2. Title Page
  3. Copyright Page
  4. Contents
  5. Introduction
  6. 1. Self-Organizing and Emergent Architecture
  7. 2. Material Computation
  8. 3. Morphogenesis and Evolutionary Computation
  9. 4. Context Matters: LabStudio and Biosynthesis
  10. 5. Growing Living Buildings: Tissue and Genetic Engineering in Architecture and Design
  11. 6. “Protocell” Architecture and SynBioDesign
  12. Appendix: Brief History of Complexity’s Intersections with Generative Architecture
  13. Acknowledgments
  14. Notes
  15. Index
  16. Color Plates

Index

ACADIA. See Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture

AD (Architectural Design), 14, 19, 22, 42, 48, 52, 55, 65, 66, 73, 138, 160, 164, 180, 196, 200, 208, 223

adaptation, 31, 63, 118, 130, 138, 154, 169; environmental, 105, 137

Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems (Holland), 108, 218, 223

Adleman, Leonard, 82, 83

Advanced Virtual and Technological Architecture Research Group, 22–23

aesthetics, 5, 11, 28, 49, 65, 66, 68, 90; architectural, 52; emergent, 27, 30 (fig.); organic, 30

affect, using, 212 (fig.)

Aggregate Architectures (Dierichs): photo of, 56, 57

Ahlquist, Sean, 104

Alexander, Christopher, 58, 218–23, 220–25, 265n20

Algal Filter Machine (Benjamin, Smith, Managh, Smout, and Allen), 193

algorithms, 1–2, 52, 75, 116, 119, 121, 131, 137; biological, 81; customized, 251n32; digital, 171; epigenetic, 21, 105, 112, 136, 138, 140; eugenic, 122, 211; evolutionary, 108, 109 (fig.), 139, 236n2, 244n70; instructional, 77. See also genetic algorithms

Allen, Laura, 193

animals, 172, 181; machines and, 39

anisotropy, 71, 72, 76, 84

Antonelli, Paola, 83, 160, 171

Arabidopsis: xylem formation in, 85

Aradopsis thaliana, 81

Arbona, Javier, 159; work of, 160 (fig.)

arborsculpture, 159, 181, 182

Archigram magazine, 139

Architectural Association (AA), 7, 14, 27, 44, 89, 219, 221, 222, 223, 224, 345n82

architectural forms, 1, 58, 104, 159, 161, 223

“Architectural Genomics” (Besserud and Ingram), 16, 119, 120 (fig.), 140

Architectural History from a Performance Perspective (exhibit), 53

“Architectural Relevance of Cybernetics” (Pask), 219

Architectural Review, 209

architecture, 12, 14, 47, 64, 70, 86, 167; aggregate, 19, 74, 75, 76, 84; avant-garde, 6; biology and, 104; biometric, 20; biotic, 73; cell, 146–48; complexity, 221; engineered, 173; environmental, 11, 182; evolutionary, 59, 69, 138–41; fractal, 221; function of, 76; genetic, 174, 175–76, 177, 178, 181, 182; genome, 133; green, 13; homeostatic, 46; interior, 155; living, 181–82; material formations of, 13; model for, 35; morpho-ecological, 49, 53; near-living, 212; neo-biological, 163; parametric, 19, 62, 63, 150, 206, 229n2; postmodern, 221; rhetorical biologization of, 5–6; semi-living, 160, 163; spatial, 203; sustainable, 13, 14, 51, 54, 199; synthetic biology and, 4; tissue, 146–48, 161, 163, 174; vernacular, 13, 44, 53, 54

“Architecture and Ecology” (Armstrong and Fuller), 209

Architecture d’Aujourd’hui (Chenal): scene from, 205 (fig.)

Architecture Machine, The (Negroponte), 219

Architecture of Emergence: The Evolution of Form in Nature and Civilisation, The (Weinstock), 18–19, 40, 62

Architecture of the Jumping Universe, The (Jencks), 221

“Architecture That Repairs Itself?” (Armstrong), 13

Architecture without Architects (Rudofsky), 60

“Architect Walks into the Lab, An” (LabStudio), 157

“Are the Semi-Living Semi-Good or Semi-Evil?” (Zurr and Catts), 171

Aristotle, 31

Armstrong, Rachel, 13, 23, 163, 184–85, 192, 195, 196, 197–98, 199, 207; on ecosystems, 201; on ideal architecture, 162; protocell architecture and, 22, 186, 188, 200, 201, 206, 209, 259n38

Ars Electronica, 164

Arup, 90, 145

Ashby, W. Ross, 32, 219, 222

assembly logic, 28, 29 (fig.)

Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA), 16, 58, 119, 120, 149, 168, 176

associative models, 27, 43, 45, 50, 150, 160

athwart theory, 9, 11, 63, 64, 101

Autographics Ltd., 223

autopoiesis, 4, 136, 194

avant-garde, 6, 12, 58, 59, 154, 175, 182

Ayres, Robert, 97

bacteria, 132, 172, 180, 189, 213, 246n121; as chassis of choice, 193

Ball, Philip, 55, 56, 57, 73, 103, 107–8, 126

Balmond, Cecil, 90, 145

Bandiagara Escarpment, 60; village at, 61 (fig.)

Bartlett School of Architecture (University College London), 4, 22, 60, 160, 161, 224

Bateson, Gregory, 219

Bateson, William, 107

Beadle, George, 113, 243n44

Beauty: The Cooper Hewitt Design Triennial (exhibition), 152

Bedau, Mark, 196

Beer, Stafford, 222

Beesley, Philip, 13, 18, 23, 152, 155, 185–86, 195, 212, 214

behavior, 45, 121, 135; collective, 43; dynamic, 89; emergent, 5; material, 53, 71, 73; natural organism, 32, 204; organizational, 74; physical, 71; social, 5; spatiotemporal, 75

Beijing National Aquatics Center, 1; photo of, 2–3

Beijing National Stadium Building, 1; photo of, 2–3

Bell Labs, 219, 220

Belousov–Zhabotinsky oscillation, 55

Benjamin, David, 18, 19, 70, 83, 84, 86, 90, 119, 186, 193, 238n40, 239n58, 244n65, 248–49n1; biocomputing and, 79, 80, 81; biological structures and, 85; Federici and, 143; work of, 23, 23 (fig.), 25

Bentley, Peter, 104, 116, 128, 130, 140

Bernard, Claude, 232n9

Besserud, Keith, 16, 17, 119, 140, 231n35; architectural genomics by, 120 (fig.)

“Between Order and Chaos” (Crutchfield), 86

Biased Chains (Tibbits), 78

BioBrick, 80, 186, 189, 190, 238n40, 238n42

biochemistry, 54, 92, 146

biocomputation, 12, 19, 69, 70, 79, 207, 249n1; architectural, 80–84

biodesign, 23, 82, 188, 215

BioDesign: Nature, Science, Creativity (Myers), 84, 159, 193

biodiversity, 179, 214

Bioencryption (Myers), 84

biofabrication, 186, 189, 193

biofuel, 214, 264n140

biogrid, 173, 179–80

“Bio Logic” (Benjamin and Federici), 19, 80

Biological Atelier (Congdon), 192

“Biologically Inspired Evolutionary Development” (Kumar and Bentley), 128

biological processes, 12, 20, 40, 64, 79, 92, 112, 136

biological systems, 12, 20, 21, 30, 39, 65, 85, 90, 95, 137, 150, 163; biological theories, 108, 115, 140, 215, 222; characteristics of, 213; complexity of, 127, 156, 157, 169, 173, 206; at equilibrium, 233n27; exploitation of, 257n98; material organization of, 54

biology, 12, 18, 20, 23, 69, 103, 109, 111, 122, 156, 201, 203, 218, 223; architecture and, 104, 248n1; building blocks of, 202; cell, 144, 206; computation and, 4, 112; construction method of, 77; contemporary, 136, 140; developmental, 20, 104, 105, 106, 112, 116, 123, 125, 139, 141, 145, 150, 237n2, 245n81; evolutionary, 7, 36, 112, 113, 237n2, 245n81; information technology and, 246n115; material formations of, 13; molecular, 113; principles of, 4; systems, 148, 154, 206

bioluminescence, 169, 193, 254n44, 258n20

biomimicry, 19, 59, 63, 69, 81, 90, 149

Biomimicry Studio, 7, 89

biomolecular, 69, 70, 80–84, 85, 136, 207

“Biomorphic Architecture” (Estévez), 112

bioprinting, 22, 165, 168, 169, 253n35

bioreactors, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 168, 170

biospheres, 137, 192

biosynthesis, 12, 149, 150, 207

biotechnology, 136, 144, 161, 182, 189, 190, 209, 211; architectural/urban design and, 178; development in, 192

Bird, Adrian, 135, 136

Bissell, Mina, 21, 145, 148, 149, 254n45; microenvironment and, 249n4; on tissue phenotype, 147

Blind Watchmaker, The (Dawkins), 110, 117

Bolker, Michael, 206

Boot Camp, 7, 19, 27, 36, 37, 38; component design for, 28 (fig.); component material for, 29 (fig.); emergent aesthetics by, 30 (fig.)

Boston Architectural Center, 219

Bottazi, Robert: on Armstrong/Fuller, 209

bottom-up, 32, 59, 60, 63, 64, 83, 178, 201, 204

Boulder Beer Company, 68

Branching Morphogenesis (Sabin), 152, 155

Brand, Stewart, 159, 162, 265n20

Breeding Architecture (FOA), 152

Bressani, Martin, 14

Brown, Jerry, 16

buildings: ecological impact of, 141; green, 49, 214; human-scale, 202; living, 18, 22, 159; morpho-ecological, 50; self-assembling, 83; smart, 44, 214

building skins, 154, 155, 157

Burgess, Jeremy: soap bubble morphology of, 37 (fig.)

Burton, Michael, 187, 191, 192, 210, 212; work of, 187 (fig.), 259n31

Cache, Bernard, 174

CAD/CAM, 52, 64, 160, 165, 176, 251n32

Camazine, Scott: on emergent properties, 31

Canadian Pavilion (Venice Biennale), 185

capitalism, 65, 164, 180, 252n23, 257n98; theory of, 171

carbon dioxide, 11, 41, 72, 96, 99, 168, 181, 185, 200, 201

Carey, Will, 190

Carpo, Mario, 1

Carroll, Sean, 22, 124, 125, 127, 128, 130, 148, 245n84, 246n11, 246n112

Cassman, Marvin, 250n20

“Casting Spells with DNA” (Rothemund), 171

Castle, Helen, 52, 182, 234n67

CATE. See Computer-Aided Tissue Engineering

Catts, Oron, 4, 18, 22, 159, 163, 169, 170, 180, 191, 252n24; genetic engineering and, 172; genohype/DNA mania and, 176; leather jackets and, 165; living architecture and, 181; Pig Wings Project and, 164, 171; “top-down” process and, 164; work of, 160, 161

cells, 17, 138, 150, 163, 180; artificial, 204, 259n38; cultured bovine, 170; development of, 129, 195; endothelial, 148, 152; engineered, 206; epithelial, 149, 151; eukaryotic, 132, 172, 188; functioning of, 146; germ, 107, 112–13, 133, 160; inorganic, 202; living, 22, 169, 195, 203; mesodermal, 148; minimal, 184, 188; physiochemical basis of, 203; sex, 133; solar, 97; somatic, 106; synthesizing, 195; templates for, 35; types of, 134

cellular differentiation, 128, 135

Center for Fundamental Living Technology (FLinT), 195–96

central dogma, 105, 110, 112, 113, 114, 122, 123, 124, 133, 144, 149, 156, 203, 260n53, 262n92

“Central Dogma of Molecular Biology” (Crick), 110

Centre Pompidou, 5, 50

Chaitin, Gregory, 219

chaos, 5, 39, 65, 66, 67, 86, 87, 94

chassis, 80, 172, 188, 189, 193, 206

“Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis, The” (Turing), 21, 38, 107

chemical supersystem, 194–95

chemoton concept, 194–95

Chieza, Natsai-Audrey, 192, 193, 210

Child Force (Wollersberger), 207

Chin, Jason, 195

chips, 11, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100

chromatin, 134, 135, 172

chromosomes, 114, 115, 123, 133, 172; histones and, 134

Chu, Karl, 4, 174

Civilian Conservation Corps, 179

civilization, 40, 42, 58, 59

Clear, Nic: protocell architecture and, 22

climate, 43, 44, 53, 131; modeling, 10; responsiveness, 72

climate change, 10, 11, 12, 41, 59, 209

Climbing Mount Improbable (Dawkins), 110

cloning, 17, 136, 162, 256n89

Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 132

collaboration, 7, 145, 154, 157, 172; human–computer, 2–3

collagen, 148, 150, 170, 254n50

Collins, Francis, 124, 125

Collins, Harry, 10

Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, 19, 84, 119, 193, 224, 238n40

Columbus, Christopher, 178, 256n89

communication, 39, 86, 217; modern theory of, 87; processes of, 88

complexism, 18, 60, 65, 68, 178, 187; allegiance to, 66; athwart theory and, 63; bottom-up/top-down, 202; generative architecture and, 6, 17, 30–36, 58; ideology of, 9, 85, 101; introduction to, 30–36; pervasive application of, 202; rhetoric of, 215

complexity, 5, 7, 12, 33, 37, 39, 42, 43, 59, 63, 68, 181, 203, 217, 218; biological, 124, 125, 127, 156, 157, 169, 173, 188, 206; environmental, 157; as explanatory tool/ideology, 9–10; genetic, 124; interpretation of, 67; organized, 75, 220; paradigm, 221; statistical, 86, 88; structural, 86; terminology of, 66, 69

Complexity: A Guided Tour (Mitchell), 31

Complexity and Contradcition in Architecture (Venturi), 220

complexity theory, 12, 14, 20, 31, 35, 36, 40, 59, 67, 68, 70, 73, 75, 85, 86, 201, 202, 204, 206, 220, 221; approaching, 9; described, 5; growth of, 58; language of, 4

complex systems, 12, 31, 33, 36, 44, 45, 64, 80, 87, 150, 151, 152, 203, 214, 220, 221; concepts/processes of, 38; dynamics of, 85–86; nonlinear processes of, 149; social/cultural manifestations of, 32

components, 1, 5, 27, 31, 32, 78; manipulation of, 45; material, 29 (fig.)

computation, 3, 40, 59, 69, 94, 103, 114, 154, 218, 221, 223; biology and, 4, 112; biomolecular, 70, 80–84, 85, 207; digital, 1, 95–101, 107, 155; evolutionary, 4, 12, 20, 104, 105, 108, 110, 111, 112, 121, 128, 131, 136, 139, 140, 191, 265n7; machine, 73, 75, 76; material, 12, 13, 19, 20, 69, 70–79, 82, 84, 85, 95, 207; material formations of, 13, 199; molecular, 19, 82, 237n2; natural, 2, 19, 20, 69, 70, 73, 84–90, 92–95, 199, 207, 236–37n2; parallel, 83; physical, 73; silicon-based, 82; theory of, 89, 222, 237n2

Computational Design Thinking (Menges and Ahlquist), 104

computational mechanics, 20, 84–90, 92–95

computational processes, 12, 64, 82, 104–5

Computer-Aided Tissue Engineering (CATE), 166, 167, 253n34; Tissue Engineering Lab, 176

“Computer-Aided Urban Design” studio (Negroponte and Groissier), 219

computer numerically controlled (CNC), 38, 71

computers, 11, 71, 73, 95, 214; biological, 82; chemical, 200; critical raw material potentials in, 101 (table); digital, 108; personal, 70, 75; removing parts from, 98; super, 83; using, 2–3, 70

computer science, 1, 12, 58, 77, 82, 104, 112, 129, 140, 186, 218

“Computing with Synthetic Protocells” (Courbet, Molina, and Amor), 84

Congdon, Amy, 192, 193

“Constructions: An Experimental Approach to Intensely Local Architectures” (Cordua), 55

consumption, 6, 63, 77, 99, 213; cycle, 53; design production and, 10–11

Cordua, Hermansen: localism and, 67

Cotten, Joshua, 119, 120, 231n34

Crain, Madison, 97

Crick, Francis, 107, 110, 113, 124, 144

CRISPR/Cas9, 163, 192, 193, 207, 208

CRISPR Technology, 262n109

Cronenberg, David, 160

Cronin, Leroy, 200, 202

crossover, 115, 119, 153

Crutchfield, James, 7, 85, 86, 88, 89, 89 (fig.); chaotic attractor and, 87; epsilon machine and, 87; natural computation and, 20

Cruz, Marcos, 4, 22, 160, 163, 180, 207

“Crystals, Cells, and Networks: Unconfining Territories” (Bressani and van Pelt), 14

culture, 5, 32, 40, 41; civilized, 60; concepts/materializations of, 9; expressing, 11; material, 60; nature and, 9, 62, 160; primitive, 60; three-dimensional, 249n16

cybernetics, 1, 4, 5, 36, 39, 112, 202, 217, 222, 223; origins of, 6; rise of, 58, 218

Cybernetics; or, Control and Communication in the Animal and Machine (Wiener), 217, 218, 219

cytoplasm, 128, 146, 150, 184

Daimler AG/Mercedes-Benz, 150

Darwin, Charles, 58, 105, 113, 119, 121, 171; evolutionary theory and, 180; natural selection and, 112; pangenesis and, 107; sketch by, 118, 118 (fig.)

Darwinism, 111, 122, 132, 245n104

Darwinism Evolving (Depew and Weber), 113

Darwin’s Dangerous Idea (Dennett), 110

Davenport, Charles, 122

Dawkins, Richard, 110, 117, 123; biological evolution and, 111; genetic reductionism and, 116; selfish-gene theory and, 12, 111, 114

death, biological logic of, 192

Death and Life of Great American Cities, The (Jacobs), 220

De Decker, Kris, 100

“Defining New Architectural Design Principles with ‘Living’ Inorganic Materials” (Cronin), 202

del Campo, Matias, 22, 166, 167, 168, 169, 176, 177

Deleuze, Gilles, 39

Dennett, Daniel, 110, 111, 122

Depew, David, 112, 113, 116, 239n54; digital printouts and, 110; digital tropology and, 163; on genes, 123; natural selection and, 111; quasi-genetics and, 122

design, 6, 12, 30, 73, 79, 89, 153, 156, 182, 217; agency, 58; algorithmic, 150, 218–23; biomolecular computing-based, 82; cell surface, 150; critical, 182; cyber eco-fusion, 176; digital, 71, 77, 116, 139, 165; ecologic-environmental, 14, 175; education, 213; generative, 130, 139, 154; limitation, 199; modern, 55, 191; mycelium-based, 25; ornamental, 66–67; paradigms, 100–101; parametric, 45, 46, 52, 54, 66, 72; production, 8, 10–11; protocells and, 209; streamline, 67, 68; studies, 10, 11; surface, 21; sustainable, 14, 59; urban transportation, 33; wooden, 52

Design and the Elastic Mind (exhibition), 22, 83, 150, 159, 170, 191, 209

Design Anthropology: Theory and Practice (Murphy), 7

Design Fictions (Chieza), 192, 210

Design for a Brain (Ashby), 222

“design for debate,” 182, 187, 188, 191, 197, 207

Designing for the Sixth Extinction (Ginsberg), 187, 191

development, 58, 116, 138, 153, 181; algorithmic, 130; computational, 20, 128; cross-disciplinary, 82; embryological, 106, 112, 130; evolutionary, 12, 39, 41, 171; land, 75; morphogenetic, 68, 92, 105, 126; organismal, 131; phylogenetic, 106; scientific, 157; tissue, 144

De Vries, Hugo, 107

Dierichs, Karola, 55, 73, 74, 76, 84; aggregate architecture and, 19; complexity theory and, 75; work of, 56 (fig.), 57 (fig.)

Digital–Botanic Architecture (Dollens), 164

Digital Grotesque II (Hansmeyer and Dillenburger), 5, 154

digital technology, 1, 13, 20, 45, 60, 70, 79, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 111, 176; economic growth of, 54; transistors/chips and, 95

Digital Turn in Architecture, The (Carpo), 1

Dillenburger, Benjamin, 5, 154

Directed Hamiltonian Path (DHP) problem, 82

disease, 16, 136, 144, 145, 146, 148, 150, 208

Disembodied Cuisine (Catts and Zurr), 164

DNA, 11, 12, 14, 77, 85, 105, 107, 115, 118, 128, 133, 138, 149, 188–89, 190, 193, 195, 207, 208; chain, 163, 176; as code of life, 84, 239n54; complementary, 124; computation, 19, 82; as database, 83; design, 153; editing, 163; efficacy of, 144; fetishizing, 213; functional, 114; information storage density of, 82–83; intergenetic, 173; isolating, 144; junk, 114, 135; mania, 170, 171, 176; manipulation of, 112; minimal, 184; mitochondrial, 132; nucleotide bases of, 134; plasmids, 204; polymer, 83; popular views of, 143; reorganization, 176; RNA and, 123–24, 243n25; robotized manipulation of, 4; sequence, 124, 133, 172, 173, 176; strings, 80, 82; synthetic, 170, 184; X-ray diffraction image of, 143–44, 143 (fig.)

DNA Origami (Rothemund), 170

Doernach, Rudolph, 139

Dollens, Dennis, 161, 164

Dosier, Ginger Krieg, 238n42

Douglas, Kate, 210

Douglis, Evan, 174

Dunne, Anthony, 23, 182, 191, 207

“Dynamic Array: Protocells as Dynamic Structure” (Iwamoto), 200

dysgenics, 121, 211

ECM. See extracellular matrix

ecology, 21, 40, 41, 45, 47, 52, 141, 156, 164, 175; multi-species, 65

Econic Design: A New Paradigm for Architecture (Hollwich, Kuchner, and students), 22, 162, 173, 175, 178, 197

ecosystems, 38, 174, 191, 201

Ecotec, 14

Ecovative, 23, 186

EDS. See evolutionary developmental systems

Edwards, Paul, 10, 11

EFRI. See Emerging Frontiers in Research and Innovation

Egash, Ron, 236n88

Eiben, Agoston, 108, 122, 139

Einstein, Albert, 203

electricity, 78, 173, 174, 240n91

Electronics Goes Green conference, 99

embryo geography, logic of, 126–27 (fig.)

embryology, 20, 131, 218

embryos, 106, 107, 112, 125, 128, 130, 210

emergence, 4, 6, 12, 18, 31, 35, 59, 68; architecture of, 36–44; concept of, 206; principles of, 199; theory of, 38–39

Emergence and Design Group, 44

“Emergence: Morphogenetic Design Strategies” (AD), 14

Emergence seminar (Weinstock), 7, 230n25

Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software (Johnson), 31

emergent aesthetics, 27, 30 (fig.)

emergent architecture, 5, 19, 27, 28, 31, 35, 58–60, 62–68; explication of, 36; theory of, 40

Emergent Design + Creative Technologies in Medicine, 148

Emergent Technologies and Design program (EmTech), 7, 14, 19, 28, 29, 30, 35, 36, 38, 44, 63, 74, 89, 90, 221; curriculum of, 27; evo-devo at, 21

Emerging Frontiers in Research and Innovation (EFRI), 154, 155, 157

ENCODE Project (Encyclopedia of DNA Elements), 135, 173, 247n142, 255n61

Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo (Carroll), 22, 124, 130, 246n111

endosymbiogenesis, 172, 252n23

Endy, Drew, 25, 187

energy, 44, 62, 69, 78, 96, 240n91; alternative, 173; consumption, 77; embedded, 214; flow, 41; high-embedded, 12; mass of, 98; materials and, 5; passive, 78–79; solar, 49, 119, 120, 202; systems, 40

Energy Futures Lab, 192

energy minimization, 154

Engheta, Nader, 151, 153

engineering, 3, 69, 82, 203, 218; bottom-up, 22; computer, 188; mindset, 210; molecular, 139; tissue, 168 (fig.); top-down, 22, 186

Engineering and Physical Science Research Council, 80, 259n28

engineering synbio, 22, 25, 80, 111, 186, 254n44, 258n19; genetic engineering and, 23; handheld instruments of, 205 (fig.); top-down, 187, 188–93, 190, 204

Enriquez, Juan, 208

entropy, 65, 66, 75, 86, 87, 88, 94, 97, 209

Entropy (journal), 33

environment, 8, 44, 52, 53, 68, 140, 196; architects and, 48–49; building, 35; caring for, 175; complex, 45, 138; external, 43; living, 214; marine, 13; natural, 65; social, 45; unnatural, 180

environmental conditions, 14, 35, 46, 48, 49, 54, 55, 168; digital analysis of, 53

environmental impact, 6, 8, 10, 11, 59, 63, 82, 96, 97, 101, 179, 215; producing, 9

environmental issues, 11, 14, 115, 173, 175, 178

epigenetics, 7, 12, 21, 106, 131–38, 140, 144, 145, 148, 165, 166, 168, 169, 181, 202, 203, 206; defined, 136; modern, 135; theory of, 105; understandings of, 112

epsilon-machine, 87, 94, 95, 239n58

equilibrium, 39, 75, 209, 233n27

Escherichia coli, 123, 189, 254n44

Escuela Arquitectura (ESARQ), 4, 164, 174, 176

eSkin, 153, 154–55, 156

Estalella, Adolfo, 8

Estévez, Alberto, 18, 112, 176, 190, 192, 193; colonial “hero” and, 177; generative architecture and, 22; genetic architecture and, 174; on genetic engineers, 4; on imperialist instinct, 177; sustainability and, 13

ethnography, 6, 7, 8, 11

Eugene (software), 211

Eugenic Design: Streamlining America in the 1930s (Cogdell), 6, 14, 58, 122

eugenics, 12, 14, 17, 42, 58, 64, 68, 106, 107, 114, 118, 119, 122, 208–11; function of, 6; negative, 16, 211; positive, 16, 211

eukaryotes, 132, 134, 246n121

Euler tour, 77, 78, 145

Eureqa (software application), 81

European Center for Living Technology, 185, 195

European Commission, 209

European Union, 99

evo-devo. See evolutionary developmental biology

Evo DeVO Project, 105, 246n115

evolution, 14, 40, 104, 107, 109, 113, 130, 137, 207, 233n36; biological, 4, 108, 112, 202, 242n7; charts, 15 (fig.), 67; conception of, 115; controlling, 210; Darwinian, 121; genetics of, 68, 122; Lamarckian, 12; model of, 122; natural, 109 (fig.), 139; neo-Darwinian, 12; reconfiguration of, 114; rules of, 110; strategies, 108; theory of, 39, 58, 106, 132, 171, 195

Evolutionary Architecture, An (Frazer), 112, 116–17, 138, 222

“Evolutionary Architecture? Some Perspectives from Biological Design” (Turner), 48

evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo), 20, 21, 121, 132, 144, 150, 241n5, 245n81, 246n115; evolutionary computation and, 131; theories of, 105; turn-of-the-millennium, 124–31; understandings of, 112

evolutionary developmental systems (EDS), 128, 129, 130

evolutionary theory, 127, 131–38, 243n39, 243n40; developments in, 104–5; extension of, 58; neo-Darwinian, 112–19, 121–24

Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral, and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life (Jablonka and Lamb), 21, 149

“Evolution of Tower Form with No Adjacent Context,” 120 (fig.)

Evolution: The Modern Synthesis (Huxley), 113

Evolving Ourselves: How Unnatural Selection and Nonrandom Mutation Are Changing Life on Earth (Enriquez and Gullans), 208

eXistenZ, 160

Experimental Collaborations: Ethnography beyond Participant Observation, 8

experimentation, 17, 29, 45, 71, 92, 105, 118, 119, 127, 148; biological, 21, 133; digital, 27; laboratory, 18, 150, 156

exposomics, 140

Expulsions: Brutality and Complexity in the Global Economy (Sassen), 33, 62, 64

extracellular matrix (ECM), 143, 152, 166, 169, 249n4

fabrication, 76, 77, 139, 154, 155, 156

Facciotti, Marc, 254n44

FAZ Pavilion, photo of, 50

Federici, Fernan, 18, 19, 83, 86, 90, 186, 238n40, 239n58, 248n1, 249n1; Benjamin and, 143; biocomputing and, 79, 80, 81; biological samples and, 81; biological structures and, 85; biomolecular computation and, 70; work of, 23, 25, 80

feedback, 39, 73, 108; digital, 43; negative/positive, 48; real-time, 138; relationships, 45

Feldman, David, 85

fetal bovine serum (FBS), 169

fetal calf serum (FCS), 169, 170, 207

Feynman, Richard, 82

fitness, 14, 17, 42, 109, 121, 211

FLinT. See Center for Fundamental Living Technology

Fluid Assembly: Chairs (Self-Assembly Lab), 78, 79 (fig.)

Foreign Office Architects (FOA), 14, 18, 117, 152, 153

Foreign Office Architects: Breeding Architecture (exhibition), 14, 117, 118

Forgacs, Andras, 170

Forgacs, Gabor, 170

fossil fuels, 41, 98, 99, 100, 174, 214, 240n91

Franklin, Rosalind, 143–44

Frazer, John, 21, 58, 105, 112, 116–17, 124, 266n26; drawing/sculpture by, 116 (fig.); epigenetic algorithms and, 138–39; reptile seed system and, 222–27

Frazer, Julia, 222

free coils, 90, 92, 93, 95; passion flower, 92 (fig.)

Free Fab Hab (Joachim, Greden, and Arbona), 159, 160

Freeform Construction, 47

Fthenakis, Vasilis, 155

Fu, Pengcheng, 19, 82, 83, 206

full circle, 202–4, 206–15

Fuller, Buckminster, 146, 161

Fuller, Steve, 209

functionalities, life, 194 (fig.)

Fun Palace project, 221, 222

Furjàn, Helene, 105, 138

Future Farm (Burton), 187, 191, 210

Future Venice (Armstrong), 23, 185 (fig.), 197, 198 (fig.), 199 (fig.)

Galanter, Philip, 1

Galton, Francis, 106

Gánti, Tibor, 54, 194–95

GAs. See genetic algorithms

Gaspar, Andrea, 7, 8

Gaudi, Antoni, 74

Gehring, Walter, 245n84

gelatinous-fiber (g-fiber) cell contraction, 94

gene-centrism, 48, 122, 140

general systems theory, 36, 218, 220

General Systems Theory (von Bertalanffy), 220

generation, theory of, 124

generative: explanation of, 4; genetic and, 4

generative architects, 17–18, 35, 101, 104, 188, 213; animalish structures and, 161; genetic algorithms and, 21; innovations by, 105; living buildings and, 22; work of, 139, 143

generative architecture, 1, 7, 9, 16, 21, 63, 84, 85, 90, 100, 103, 112, 139, 175, 178, 182, 190, 222, 223, 224; challenges for, 140; characterization of, 18; complexism and, 6, 17, 30–36, 58; development of, 58, 221; evaluating, 11, 12; formalist focus of, 81; foundation for, 6; generative approaches in, 104; idolization of, 68; literature in, 163; neo-Darwinian, 143; practicing, 202; rhetoric of, 161; sustainable, 13; synthetic biology and, 22; teaching, 14; terminology of, 4, 12; themes of, 5; writings of, 38

Generative Components, 2, 150, 156; digital curriculum vitae by, 153 (fig.)

Generator project, 222

genes, 12, 20, 40, 107, 114, 115, 124, 129, 134, 150, 195, 204, 207; activation of, 127, 128; bad, 121; efficacy of, 144; environment and, 48, 123; homeotic, 105; identity crisis of, 135; jumping, 123, 133; protein-coding, 125; regulatory, 123, 132, 133; swapping, 132, 193

genetic algorithms (GAs), 14, 16, 17, 21, 104, 108, 110, 112, 115, 116, 119, 121, 156, 203, 222; evolutionary, 129–30; as problem-solving design tools, 144; using, 117, 122

Genetic Architectures (Estévez), 14, 174, 190

Genetic Architectures II (Estévez), 174

Genetic Architectures III (Estévez), 174

Genetic Architectures graduate program, 4, 164, 174, 175

Genetic Barcelona Pavilion (Estévez), 177

genetic engineering, 4, 12, 22, 25, 136, 139, 144, 163, 172–87, 189, 190, 191, 208, 212, 253n41; engineering synbio and, 23; improving, 173, 174; natural, 138; standard, 172

genetic information system (XNA), 195

genetic modification, 25, 188, 189, 193, 208

genetic programming, 58, 108, 132

genetics, 14, 40, 68, 104, 113, 114, 123, 132, 133, 202, 207, 248n145; architectural, 175–76, 222; cybernetic–digital resources and, 4; Darwinian theories of, 21; data of, 140; early, 12; evolution and, 122; living cells and, 22; Mendelian, 113; population, 105, 113; quasi-, 122

Genetic Trace (Soares), 209

Gen(H)ome Project, The, 14, 105

genohype, 170, 176

genomes, 114, 119, 129, 133, 134, 181, 203, 208, 247n134, 247n142, 248n145; architectural, 120 (fig.); cell, 132, 135; human, 115, 125; minimal, 184, 186; organization/reorganization of, 137 (fig.); population of, 17

genotypes, 14, 115, 116, 118, 130, 207; phenotypes and, 136

Gershenfeld, Neil, 78

Ghrist, Robert, 145

Gibb, James, 60, 223

Giedion, Siegfried, 218

Gierer, Alfred, 108

Ginsberg, Alexandra Daisy, 187, 191, 193, 204, 211, 213; Synthetic Aesthetics and, 190

glass: carbohydrate, 165, 242n32; CRT, 98, 99; enclosures, 168

globalization, 55, 64, 179

global warming, 10, 12, 155

Golinski, Jan, 8

Googol Puddles (Robitz), 84, 193

Gorbet, Robert, 212; affect and, 212 (fig.)

Gosling, Ray, 143–44

Grasshopper, 2, 27, 90, 226

Gray, William Alexander, 136, 207

Greden, Lara: work of, 159, 160 (fig.)

Greene, David, 139

green fluorescing protein (GFP), 181

greenhouse gases, 11, 41, 99, 214

Griaule, Marcel: photo by, 61

Griesemer, James, 7, 262n90

Groissier, Leon, 219

Grushkin, Daniel, 170

GSD. See Harvard Graduate School of Design

Guattari, Félix, 39

Gullans, Steve, 208

Gutierrez, Maria-Paz, 155

habitation, 53, 75, 76, 139, 181

Hadid, Zaha, 66, 223

Haeckel, Ernst, 58, 106, 124, 241n5

Haldane, J. B. S., 209

Hanczyc, Martin, 196, 197, 206

Hansmeyer, Michael, 5, 154

Harold, Frank, 195

Harvard Graduate School of Design (GSD), 44, 72, 218, 219, 221

Hawkins, Anne, 235n82

“Hegemonic Parametricism Delivers a Market-Based Order” (Schumacher), 65

Heller, Miriam, 97

Helmreich, Stefan, 8, 9, 10, 63, 101

Hensel, Michael, 13, 20, 25, 30, 35, 59, 174, 223, 234n67, 235n82; biochemistry and, 54; bottom-up and, 64; building strategies and, 53; complexity theory of, 68; heterogeneous space and, 45; instrumentalizing and, 52; localism and, 67; mimicry and, 63; morpho-ecologies and, 19, 31, 44–57, 140–41; photovoltaic silicon-based technologies and, 52; sustainability and, 35–36, 44–45, 49, 59; tensile forces and, 74

heredity, 54, 105, 107, 113, 118, 132, 135, 136, 195, 203

Hermansen Cordua, Christian, 44, 55, 59

heterogeneity, 19, 35, 55, 67, 68

Heylighen, Francis, 39–40, 42

HGP. See Human Genome Project

Hine, Christine, 8

Holland, John, 58, 118, 218; genetic algorithm and, 108, 116, 222

Holliday, Robin, 136

Hollinger, Philipp, 195

Hollwich, Matthias, 22, 162, 173, 174, 197, 255n67

Hollwich Kushner (HWKN), 22, 162, 162 (fig.)

homeobox genes, 124, 125, 127, 128, 130, 131, 144, 145, 148, 151, 181

homeostasis, 34, 35, 41, 42, 48, 49, 54, 138, 144, 147, 195, 217, 260n53

Hooker, Cliff, 206

Hoolko, Jonny, 254n44, 258n19

Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT), 132, 246n121

Housefield, James, 236n87

Hox genes, 124, 125, 126, 129

HSBC advertising campaign, 34 (fig.)

Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act (2008), 16, 210

Human Genome Project (HGP), 114, 115, 124, 134, 135, 144

Humanity 2.0. What It Means to Be Human Past, Present, and Future (Fuller), 209

Huxley, Julian, 113, 209

hybrids, 82, 181, 192

hydroscopic properties, 50, 53, 71, 72

Hy-Fi (Benjamin), 25, 186; photo of, 23

HygroScope: Meteorosensitive Morphology (Menges and Reichert), 50; photo of, 51

Hylozoic Ground (Beesley), 18, 152, 185, 196, 197, 212

Hyung Chul Kim, 155

ICA. See Institute of Contemporary Art

iGEM. See International Genetically Engineered Machine

Ihida-Stansbury, Kaori, 151, 153

Iles, Alastair, 98

IndieBio, 25

inequalities, socioeconomic, 98, 212, 213, 214

information theory, 86, 89, 94, 107, 110, 219

infrastructure, 10, 42, 43, 44, 77, 82, 100, 174, 188, 189, 197, 214, 215

Ingber, Donald, 146

Ingram, Joshua, 16, 17, 119, 140, 231n34, 231n35; architectural genomics by, 120 (fig.)

inheritance, theory of, 106, 107

Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, An (Smith), 171

installations, 13, 18, 25, 27, 152, 155, 156, 206; environmental, 23; interactive, 138, 196; prototype, 174

Institute for Computational Design, 19, 44, 55, 223

Institute for Lightweight Structures, 74

Institute for Medicine and Engineering (IME), 145

Institute of Contemporary Art (ICA), 14, 117, 118

instrumentalization, 52, 53, 139, 172, 215

integration, 43, 48, 63, 72, 181, 206; differentiation and, 37

intelligence, 5, 42, 43; artificial, 36, 109, 218, 237n2

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 10

International Design Center (MIT), 79

International Genetically Engineered Machine (iGEM), 84, 186, 189

International Human Epigenome Consortium, 135

International Science and Engineering Visualization Challenge, 152

International Social Service (ISS), 207

Isabella, Queen, 178

Istanbul, masterplan for, 66, 66 (fig.)

Iwamoto, Lisa, 200

Jablonka, Eva, 7, 21, 134, 136, 149

Jacob, François, 123, 132, 133

Jacobs, Jane, 220

Jamieson, James, 146

J. Craig Aventer Institute, 184

JCVI-syn1.0, 204

JCVI-syn3.0, 184

Jencks, Charles, 139, 221

Jeronimidis, George, 7

Joachim, Mitchell, 159

Johannsen, Wilhelm, 107

Johnson, Steven, 31, 40, 220

Jones, Peter Lloyd, 7, 18, 81, 90, 104, 140, 150, 153, 154, 157, 213, 238n40, 249n1, 250n20, 254n45; ACADIA and, 149; epigenetic algorithms and, 105, 138; generative architecture and, 21; research of, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 156

Justice Now, 16

Kac, Eduardo, 181

Kangaroo, 90

Kant, Immanuel, 203, 217

Kapoor, Anish, 90; work of, 91 (fig.)

Kartal-Pendik masterplan, 66 (fig.)

Katavolos, William, 139

Kay, Lily, 110

Keller, Evelyn Fox, 7, 32, 123, 135, 217

Kepes, György, 218

Kerrigan, Christian, 23, 197; drawing by, 185 (fig.), 198 (fig.), 199 (fig.)

Kille, Peter, 136, 207

Killing Ritual, The (Catts and Zurr), 161

kill strategy, 119, 130, 211

Kirchoff: equations of, 92

Knight, Tom, 186, 189, 238n42

knowledge: bases, 210; biological, 92, 128, 131, 140; popular, 124; scientific, 8, 10, 40, 63, 68

Kolesky, David, 165

Kolmogorov, Andrey, 219

Konstantatou, Marina, 90

Kotnik, Toni, 73

Krugman, Paul, 33

Kudless, Andrew, 223

kudzu, 173, 174, 197; descriptions of, 179–80

Kulic, Dana, 212; affect and, 212 (fig.)

Kumar, Sanjeev, 104, 116, 128, 130, 140

Kushner, Marc, 173, 174, 197, 255n67

Kwinter, Sanford, 73

Lab for Computer-Aided Tissue Engineering, 22

Laboratory for Integrated Prototyping and Hybrid Environments (LIPHE), 71, 105

Laboratory of Life (Latour and Woolgar), 8

LaBruzzo, John, 16, 17

LabStudio (University of Pennsylvania), 7, 18, 22, 140, 145, 146, 154, 238n40, 249n1; work by, 143, 148–51, 156, 157

lac operon model, 125, 129, 132, 133

Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 58, 106

Lamarckism, 106, 122, 134

Lamb, Marion, 21, 134, 136, 149

Langer, Robert, 163

Language of Vision (Kepes), 218

Latour, Bruno, 8

Laughon, Allen, 245n84

Laugier, Marc-Antoine, 236n87

Laurence, Peter, 220

Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseased Offspring (1933), 16

LCAs. See life cycle assessments

Le, Felix, 97

Leach, Neil, 174

Learning Channel, The (Crutchfield), 89 (fig.)

Le Corbusier, 59, 204

Le Corbusier’s Hands: photo of, 205

Lee, Suzanne, 170

Levine, Mike, 245n84

life cycle assessments (LCAs), 11, 13, 95–96, 155

Lim, Wendell, 190

Linaria, 133, 134

Line Array (Iwamoto), 200

Linnaeus, Carl, 133, 134

LIPHE. See Laboratory for Integrated Prototyping and Hybrid Environments

Liu, Chun-Feng, 90

Living, The (firm), 19, 186

Living Architecture (firm), 196

living cells, 5, 17, 85, 146, 164, 169, 183, 184, 188, 195, 203; characteristics of, 260n53; genetics and, 22; manipulating, 177

living systems, 41, 193

Loewy, Raymond, 14; evolution charts by, 15 (fig.), 67

Logic Matter (Tibbits), 78

London Olympic Observation Tower, 90

Loos, Adolf, 174

Lorenz attractor, 87

Lucia, Andrew, 151, 153, 154

Luisi, Pier Luigi, 194

Lynn, Greg, 90, 167

machines, 217; animals and, 39; organisms and, 111

macroscales, 146; scaling up to, 151–57

Macy conferences, 218, 219

Made by the Office for Metropolitan Architecture: An Ethnography of Design (Yaneva), 8

Managh, Geoff, 193

“Manipulation and Control of Micro-Organic Matter in Architecture” (Pike), 178

Manninger, Sandra, 22, 166, 168, 169, 176, 177

manufacturing, 45, 46, 47, 64, 72, 78, 96, 97, 98, 99, 192; additive, 5, 48, 71; chip, 100; computer-aided, 52, 160; digital, 165, 176

“Manufacturing Performance” (Menges), 46–47

Marcus, George, 8

Margulis, Lynn, 132, 171, 180, 252n23

Massachusetts General Hospital, 164

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 7, 19, 76, 77, 78, 186, 218, 219

“Material Computation” (AD), 19, 73, 76

materialism, 9, 20, 41, 60, 161, 202

materials, 6, 40, 54, 62, 69, 73, 76, 78, 95, 214; biological, 18; building, 53, 70, 168; energy and, 5; raw, 77, 96, 101 (table); synthetic biodegradable, 166; 2-D, 71, 77, 81, 85, 87

“Mathematical Theory of Communication, A” (Shannon), 219

mathematics, 20, 36, 38, 39, 82, 103, 150, 218

Matrigel, 148, 149

matrix protein tenascin-C (TN-C), 148, 151

Matsuda, Eiichi, 235n82

Maturana, Humberto, 136, 194

Mayoral Gonzalez, Eduardo, 192, 193

McClintock, Barbara, 123, 133

McCoy Cell Line, 164

McCullough, Warren, 219

McGinnis, Bill, 245n84

McKnelly, Carrie, 79

Mead, Margaret, 219

meat, synthetic, 164, 166, 170

Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, The (Morgan), 107

mechanobiology, 146

mechanotransduction, 146

Meinhardt, Hans, 108

Mellon Foundation, 6–7

MENACE, 223

Mendel, Gregor, 58, 106, 113

Menges, Achim, 13, 25, 30, 70, 71, 73–74, 84, 85, 104, 105, 112, 155, 223; aggregate architecture and, 19; articles by, 76; biochemistry and, 54; bottom-up and, 64; climate responsiveness and, 72; complex environments and, 45; complexity theory and, 75; environmental virtues and, 72; evo-devo and, 131; external environment and, 130; heterogeneous space and, 45; instrumentalizing and, 52; material computation and, 20; mimicry and, 63; morpho-ecologies and, 19, 31, 44–57, 140–41, 156; natural computation and, 73; pavilion by, 50 (fig.); sustainability and, 35–36, 49, 59; tensile forces and, 74; work of, 50, 51 (fig.), 70,72

Merchant, Riyaz, 97, 240n91

metabolism, 31, 40, 41, 48, 54, 184, 194 (fig.), 195, 266n53

metals, 184; critical, 99, 100; rare earth, 99

methodology, 6, 11, 12, 189, 210, 258n20

methylation, 134, 135, 136, 172

MEtreePOLIS, 162, 173, 174, 255n67

Michie, Donald, 116, 223

Microalgerium (Sawa), 192

microbiology, 131, 132, 152

microclimates, 53, 54, 149, 191

microprocessors, 43, 44, 52, 70, 196, 214

Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 177

Miller, Geoffrey, 210

Minsky, Marvin, 218

“Missing Piece of the Puzzle? Measuring the Environment in the Postgenomic Moment, The” (Shostak and Moinester), 140

MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Mitchell, Melanie, 31, 108, 109, 114, 115, 118–19, 123, 220; on evolutionary computation, 110; genetic algorithm and, 116; work of, 160 (fig.)

mobile genetic elements (MGEs), 133

modeling, 49, 90, 92, 110, 145, 153, 154, 156, 164, 213; associative, 43, 50, 160; climate, 10; computer, 27, 31, 38, 95, 148; digital, 38, 89; epsilon-machine, 94; mathematical, 188; parametric, 45; physical, 38, 74

modernism, 58, 59, 60, 61, 66, 67, 147, 204, 205; homogeneity of, 55, 68

Modern Meadow, 170

modern synthesis, 12, 112, 113, 245n104

Moinester, Margot, 140

Mol, Annemarie, 8

molecular biology, 22, 81, 112, 122, 144, 203

MoMA. See Museum of Modern Art

Monod, Jacques, 123, 132, 133

Moore’s law, 97

Moral-Correa, Mara, 27; assembly logic by, 29 (fig.); component design by, 28 (fig.); component material by, 29 (fig.); emergent aesthetics by, 30 (fig.)

Morange, Michel, 132, 133

Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 107

morpho-ecologies, 13, 19, 31, 35, 44–57, 59, 140–41, 156; concept of, 45–46, 49; sustainability and, 49, 52

Morpho-Ecologies (Menges and Hensel), 45

morphogenesis, 12, 14, 21, 39, 45, 64, 81, 103, 105–8, 112, 123, 124, 125, 128, 130, 131, 133, 144, 146–48, 149, 163, 202, 207, 222; biological, 20, 104; modeling of, 38; normal/pathological, 145; vascular tissue, 152

“Morphogenesis and the Mathematics of Emergence” (Weinstock), 5, 38, 118

morphology, 48, 52, 103, 113, 121, 125, 144, 150, 167, 233n36, 241n5; biological, 156; breast cancer tissue, 152; granular, 55; malignant, 147; soap bubble, 37 (fig.); spatial envelope, 131; urban block, 131

Moses, Robert, 220

moss, biorenewable, 174, 179

Moussavi, Farshid, 117

Murphy, Keith, 8

Murphy, Michelle, 140

Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), 22, 80, 83, 150, 159, 170, 171, 244n59

Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) Young Architects Program at PS-1, 23, 25, 80, 186

Music Genome Project,” 17

mutation, 17, 115–16, 119, 122; gene, 127, 208; random, 125, 137

Mutation Theory, The (de Vries), 107

mycelium, 25, 80

Mycoplasma mycoides, 184; photo of, 205

Mycoworks, 25

Myers, William, 84, 159, 186, 187, 188, 193

nano-bio-info-cogno (NBIC), 69, 112, 209, 210, 212

nanofabrication, 150, 153, 154, 155

nanoscales, 146; scaling up from, 151–57

nanotechnology, 191, 209

Nanotopia (Burton), 187, 187 (fig.), 191, 210, 212

National Institutes of Health (NIH), 135

National Institutes of Health (NIH) Roadmap Epigenomics Mapping Consortium, 169

National Office of Genomic Research, 174

National Science Foundation (NSF), 80, 145, 151, 153, 154, 155, 157, 209, 259n28

Natural Computation and Self-Organization (NCASO), 20, 85, 86

“Natural Computation and Self-Organization: The Physics of Information Processing in Complex Systems” (seminar) (Crutchfield), 7

Natural Computing, 69

natural selection, 58, 103, 105, 110, 111, 119, 223; Darwinian, 121, 137; rational selection and, 122

natural systems, 9, 36, 40, 42, 86; self-organization of, 5

nature, 40; concepts/materializations of, 9; culture and, 9, 62, 160; dominance of, 255n67; protecting, 191; technology and, 70

Nature, 22, 108, 124, 135

Nature Biotechnology, 262–63n112

“Nature/Culture/Seawater” (Helmreich), 9

Nature Physics, 86

NBIC. See nano-bio-info-cogno

NCASO. See Natural Computation and Self-Organization

negative-space models, 48; photo of, 47

negentropy, 65, 66

Negroponte, Nicholas, 219

Nelson, Celeste, 249n4

neo-Darwinism, 111, 112, 113, 114, 119, 121, 124, 131, 132, 134, 139, 144, 147

“Neoplasmatic Architecture” (Cruz and Pike), 22, 207

“Neoplasmatic Design” (AD), 160, 163, 182

New Czech National Library, 45; competition model for, 46 (fig.)

Newell, Catie, 235n82

New Landscape in Art and Science, The (Kepes), 218

New Organs of Perception (Soares), 209

New York Times, 31, 129, 160, 164

nonequilibrium, 5, 39, 57, 75

nonlinear dynamics, 85, 92 (fig.), 93 (fig.)

Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos: With Applications to Physics, Biology, Chemistry, and Engineering (Strogatz), 87

“Nonlinear Systems Biology and Design: Surface Design” (Sabin and Jones), 149

Nonlinear Systems Organization (NLSO), 145

nonuniform rational basis spline (NURBS), 67

Notes on the Synthesis of Form (Alexander), 218–23, 220–25

“Now: The Rest of the Genome” (Zimmer), 129

NSF. See National Science Foundation

nutrient media, 144, 170, 189, 207, 254n48

Obitko, Marek, 119

Occupy movement, 9, 33

OCEAN, 44, 45, 52; competition model by, 46 (fig.)

Olson, Arthur, 79

On Growth and Form (Thompson), 21, 39, 103, 104, 106, 107

On Growth, Form, and Computers (Kumar and Bentley), 128, 130

On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 105, 118, 132

OPEC, 174

Open Source Architecture, 33, 71

optimization, 81, 121, 137, 138, 207

Orbit (Kapoor), 90; photo of, 91

organisms, 34, 126, 133, 138, 150, 161, 163, 169, 172, 207, 217; behavior of, 32, 204; biological, 63, 111, 131; bottom-up, 170; complex, 136; diploid, 115; distant, 124; experimental, 184; higher, 124; homeostatic, 43; host, 166, 168; living, 18, 40, 132, 139, 144; machines and, 111; micro-, 132, 178, 193; multicellular, 137; observation of, 124–25; organization/design of, 217; single-celled, 183, 188; super, 42; unicellular, 137; urban, 43

organization, 40; interaction and, 36; model, 73; natural processes of, 9

origin of life theory, 137

Otto, Frei, 74, 139

Oxitec Ltd., 211

Oxman, Neri, 70, 76, 77, 84, 223

OXO method, 116, 223

Packard, Norman, 183, 194, 196

Pandora’s Music Genome Project, 17, 144

pangenesis, 105, 107

Papadopoulou, Athina, 79

parametricism, 19, 35, 45, 59, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 104, 150, 206, 229n2

“Parametricism 2.0: Rethinking Architecture’s Agenda for the 21st Century” (Schumacher), 65

participant observation, 6, 7, 11

Pask, Gordon, 58, 219, 221, 222, 266n26

pattern, 56, 87; formation, 5, 57, 63, 128; free-coiling, 93; making, 35; mathematical expression of, 239n58; morphogenetic, 92; structure and, 86

“Pattern Formation in Nature: Physical Constraints and Self-Organising Characteristics” (Ball), 55

Pattern of Language, A (Alexander), 219

Penn Design, 22, 150

Penn Gazette, 157

“Perceptions of Epigenetics” (Bird), 136

performance, 72, 73; ecological, 173–74; environmental, 76; functional, 77; material, 30, 46; optimization, 53; structural, 27, 46, 77

“Performance-Oriented Design Precursors and Potentials” (Hensel), 53

Periyasamy, Sathish, 136, 138, 207

Pfeiffer, Peter, 150

phenotypes, 14, 113, 115, 116, 118, 119, 129, 132, 139, 165, 204, 207; building, 138; genotypes and, 136; organismal, 133–34; tissue, 147; visual, 121

Philadelphia Sesquicentennial Exposition, 179

“Philosophy of Emergence” (seminar) (Griesemer), 7

photosynthesis, 54, 72, 173

photovoltaics, 52, 54, 119, 120

phylogenesis, 14, 117, 207

Phylogenesis: FOA’s Ark (FOA), 117

phylogenetic tree, 14, 105, 118, 132, 152

Physical Review Letters, 75

physics, 7, 20, 97, 203, 218

Picasso, Pablo, 181

pig organs, matrices of, 166

Pig Wings Project, 164, 171

Pike, Steve, 22, 160, 180, 207, 214; bioterrorism and, 163; symbiosis/sustainability and, 178

plasmids, 172, 184, 188, 204

pollution, 41, 52, 70, 96, 99, 214

PolyThread Knitted Textile Pavilion (Sabin), 152, 155

population control, voluntary/societal commitment to, 42

Post, Mark, 254n49

postmodernism, 66, 90, 220, 221

“Power of Tissue Engineering, The” (Kuntz): illustration for, 167 (fig.)

Preissner, Paul, 197, 199, 200

pre-protocells, 13, 17, 85, 183, 184, 188, 195, 198, 206

Price, Cedric, 219, 221, 222

Prigogine, Ilya, 39

Principles of Life, The (Gánti), 54

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 245n81

production, 6, 8, 75; cultural, 60, 61, 62; design, 10–11; digital modes of, 207; economic, 213; sustainable modes of, 163; technological, 161

Prohaska, Sonja, 129

prokaryotes, 132, 184, 188, 252n23

proteins, 111, 114, 128, 129, 132; functional/structural, 133; photosynthetic, 174; repressor, 123; tool-kit, 125–26, 127

protocell architecture, 188, 199, 200, 201, 202, 206, 209; bottom-up, 186; promoters of, 22–23

Protocell Architecture (Armstrong and Spiller), 196

protocells, 5, 13, 23, 84, 136–37, 185, 188, 206–7, 208, 259n38, 260n50; bottom-up, 12, 183, 187, 193–97, 199–202, 203, 204; building, 22, 200; design and, 209; programming, 183, 201

Protocells: Bridging Nonliving and Living Matter (Rasmussen, Bedau, Chen, Deamer, Krakauer, Packard, and Stadler), 194 (fig.), 196

protoputing, 84, 85

prototyping, 77, 146, 154

Prx1: 148, 151

PTW Architects, 3

Python, 90

Raby, Fiona, 23, 182, 191

Race, The (Burton), 191

race betterment, 16, 58, 211

Rael, Ronald, 253n39

randomness, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 93, 94, 137

Rasmussen, Steen, 196

Ratio Club, 222

rational selection, 58, 106, 180; natural selection and, 122

Raw Materials Initiative, 99

Reale, Vincenzo, 27; assembly logic by, 29 (fig.); component design by, 28 (fig.); component material by, 29 (fig.); emergent aesthetics by, 30 (fig.)

recapitulation, theory of, 106, 124, 241n5

recombination, 110, 113, 115, 125, 131, 135, 189

reductionism, 90, 169, 193; genetic, 114, 116, 121

Registry of Standard Biological Parts, 186

Registry of Synthetic Biology Applications, 186

Reichert, Steffen: work of, 50, 50 (fig.), 51 (fig.)

reproduction, 16, 35, 55, 65, 106, 131; asexual, 38; self-replication for, 77; sexual, 115, 119, 133

reptile structural system, 116 (fig.)

Rhino, 2, 90, 226

Riechers, Paul, 90, 92, 94, 95, 100–101

RNA, 135, 195, 260n53; DNA and, 110, 123–24, 243n25

Robitz, Mike, 84, 193

robots, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63, 75, 78, 109, 139, 237n2

Roche, François, 174

Rockefeller Foundation, 219, 220

Romanes, George, 112, 113

Ross, Phil, 25, 186; work of, 24 (fig.)

Rothemund, Paul, 83, 170, 171, 176

Rudofsky, Bernard, 60

Rural Studio, 59

Sabin, Jenny, 7, 18, 22, 81, 90, 104, 140, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 150, 213, 238n40, 249n1, 250n20; ACADIA and, 149; building skin and, 155; digital curriculum of, 152; generative architecture and, 21; models by, 151; practice diagram by, 153 (fig.); process of, 152–53; work of, 154, 156

Sabin Design Lab, 148

Sadao, Shoji, 161

Sagan, Dorion, 132

Samadani, Ali-Akbar, 212; affect and, 212 (fig.)

Sánchez Criado, Tomás, 7, 8

San Fratello, Virginia, 253n39

Santa Fe Institute, 85, 196, 221

Sassen, Saskia, 33, 62, 64, 215

Savig, Erica, 151

Sawa, Marin, 192, 193, 259n38

SB 1135, 16

Scarcity and Creativity Studio, 44, 52, 55

Scheffler + Partner, 45; competition model by, 46 (fig.); pavilion by, 50 (fig.)

Schmidt, Mario, 100

Schrödinger, Erwin, 110, 242n8

Schumacher, Patrik, 19, 25, 35, 64, 204, 221, 223; aesthetic preferences of, 66; biological/physical systems and, 65; complexity and, 66, 68; garbage spill urbanism and, 67; parametricism and, 65, 67

science and technology studies (STS), 6, 8, 9, 10, 12; rubric for, 7; second-/third-generation, 11

Science magazine, 152

SEA. See Sustainable Environment Association

Second Industrial Revolution, 190, 213

self-assembly, 34, 56, 62, 77, 79, 83, 154, 171, 195, 201, 202, 203; bottom-up, 165; energy sources for, 78

Self-Assembly Lab (MIT), 78, 79 (fig.)

self-aware city, 42, 43, 44

Selfidge, Oliver, 218

selfish gene theory, 12, 111, 114

self-organization, 4, 6, 7, 12, 18, 19, 31–35, 39, 41–44, 49, 54, 55–56, 57, 58–60, 62–68, 63, 69, 73, 75, 76, 84, 100, 136, 150, 154, 170, 171, 187, 201–4, 217, 218, 221, 222; biological, 36; bottom-up, 122, 178, 220; concept of, 206; emergence and, 36; pattern, 3, 61; rhetoric of, 122; self in, 62

Self-Organization in Biological Systems (Camazine), 31

Self-Organizing Economy, The, 33

self-organizing systems, 204, 218

self-regulation, 34, 65, 217

self-repair, 200, 202, 208

Serer, Maria, 177

serum, 169–70, 207, 254n48

sexual selection, 113, 122

Shalizi, Cosma, 88

Shannon, Claude, 87–88, 89, 94, 219, 222

Shapiro, James, 137–38

Shostak, Sara, 140

Shu Yang, 145, 151, 153

Sick Building Syndrome and the Problem of Uncertainty (Murphy), 140

Silicon + Skin: Biological Processes and Computation, 16, 149

Simon, Herbert A.: on complex system, 221

Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 16

Smith, Adam, 171

Smith, Alva Ray, 139

Smith, Jim, 108, 122, 139

Smith, Nathan Williams, 193

Smout, Mark, 193

Snelson, Kenneth, 146

soap bubble morphology, 37 (fig.)

Soar, Rupert, 47, 48, 49, 50, 60

Soares, Susana, 209, 210

social construction, 8, 10

social systems, 32, 33

software, 38, 40, 217; natural, 256n89

Space, Time, and Architecture (Giedion), 218

SPAN Architects, 22, 166, 168

spatial arrangements, 45–46, 53, 74, 76

species, 14, 65, 132, 207; evolutionary relatedness of, 103

“Speculations on Tissue Engineering and Architecture” (del Campo and Manninger), 168

Spencer, Herbert, 58, 180

Spiller, Neil, 22, 196, 200, 209

Sprecher, Aaron, 71, 105, 130, 246n115

Spryopoulos, Theodore, 221

standardization, 11, 189, 206, 213, 258n20

starchitects, 59

Steenson, Molly, 219

stem cells, 133, 135, 164, 253n35, 253n41

sterilization, 161, 178; forced, 16, 211, 230n29; laws, 211, 263n126

Sterling, Bruce, 197–98

Stevens, Hallam, 111

stigmergy, 48, 231n7

stochasticity, 78, 92, 204, 206

streamlining, 67, 68

Strogatz, Steven, 87

structure, 27, 45, 52, 71, 74, 76, 81, 85, 87, 131; chemical libraries of, 202; environmentally responsive, 31; self-organizing, 200; sustainable, 13

STS. See science and technology studies

Sullivan, Louis, 147

Sun, Wei, 22, 166, 167, 169, 253n34

sustainability, 8, 11, 13, 14, 18, 23, 35–36, 44–45, 63, 169, 170, 175, 188, 213, 214; advanced, 49, 58, 59, 68; architectural, 162; dismissal of, 19; enhancing, 41; environmental, 6, 52; future-oriented, 43; morpho-ecologies and, 49

Sustainable Environment Association (SEA), 44, 53, 234n55

Swedish Design: An Ethnography (Murphy), 8

symbiosis, 172, 178, 180, 252n23

SymbioticA, 164, 172, 180, 252n23

symmetry, 107, 125; bilateral, 133; embryonic, 126; radiant, 133

synbio. See synthetic biology

synbiodesign, 23, 188–93, 209, 210, 211, 213, 259n28, 264n140

Synthetic Aesthetic (Ginsberg), 204, 211, 259n28

Synthetic Aesthetics: Investigating Synthetic Biology’s Designs on Nature (Benjamin and Federici), 80, 186

synthetic biology (synbio), 12, 25, 54, 68, 80, 84, 150, 186–91, 193, 202, 204, 210, 211, 252n12, 253n41, 257n104, 262n92, 262n96; approaches to, 183; architecture and, 4; bottom-up, 183; (fig.); challenges of, 203; defined, 184; generative architecture and, 22; industrialization of, 213; top-down, 183 (fig.), 184, 206, 207–8

“Synthetic Neoplasms” (Cruz), 161

“System City” (Weinstock), 42

systems theory, 6, 40, 64, 86, 87, 89, 237n2

Tamby, Mathieu, 151

Tatum, Edward, 113, 243n44

Taylor, Doris, 166, 169

Teague, Walter Dorwin, 67

TEAM Molecular Prototyping and BioInnovation Laboratory (UCD), 254n55

technofix, 178, 179, 260n70

technology, 41, 69, 98, 163, 171, 179, 187, 192, 208, 209, 213; advanced, 44, 59, 63; computer-based, 70; development of, 124; digital, 1, 13, 20, 38, 45, 52, 54, 60, 63, 70, 79, 95, 96, 97, 99, 101; genetic, 207, 210; living, 174, 196, 202; manufacturing, 64; nature and, 70; tissue, 167; urban information, 62

Temin, Howard, 123

tendril coiling, 90, 92, 94, 95; passion flower, 93 (fig.); photo of, 92

“Tensegrity, Cellular Biophysics, and the Mechanics of Living Systems” (Ingber), 146

tensegrity system, 27, 144, 146, 148, 152, 157, 249n5

tension systems, 74, 146

terminology, 4, 5, 8, 12, 13, 20, 40, 66, 73, 116, 129, 188, 199; biological, 114, 115, 140; generic, 32

termite mounds, 34, 36, 43, 46–48, 54, 56, 60, 62, 63, 231n7; architecture of, 48; cast of, 47 (fig.), 48

theory of everything, 44, 57

things, evolution of, 22, 139

Thompson, D’Arcy, 21, 105, 106, 139, 141, 146; evo-devo and, 128; Turing and, 107; Weinstock and, 39; work of, 103–4

Thousand Plateaus, A (Deleuze and Guattari), 39

3-D models, 48, 81, 149, 176

3-D printing, 5, 67, 150, 151, 165, 166, 167, 176, 253n39

3-D structures, 77, 78, 85, 87

Tibbits, Skylar, 19, 62, 76, 77, 78, 79, 83, 84, 214

tiling, 83

Times-Picayune, 16

Tinkerer’s Accomplice: How Design Emerges from Life Itself, The (Turner), 48

Tissue Culture and Art Project (TC&A), 163, 180

Tissue Engineered Steak No.1, 164

tissue engineering, 4, 12, 163–72, 176, 253n41; bottom-up/top-down, 166; test no. 1: 168 (fig.)

Tissue Engineering and Organ Fabrication Laboratory, 164

TN-C. See matrix protein tenascin-C

tools, 125–26, 127; computational, 1, 69; design, 144; digital, 27; explanatory, 9–10; parametric, 45

top-down, 32, 35, 43, 49, 60, 62, 63, 64, 178

topology, 45, 50, 175

Torpiano, Giancarlo, 90

Towards a New Architecture (Le Corbusier), 59

transistors, 11, 20, 52, 70, 95, 96, 97

“Traveling Salesman” problem, 82

“Tree of Life” (Darwin), 118 (fig.), 132

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The University of Minnesota Press gratefully acknowledges financial support for the publication of this book from the Office of Research and College of Letters and Science, University of California, Davis.

This book is freely available in an open access edition thanks to TOME (Toward an Open Monograph Ecosystem)—a collaboration of the Association of American Universities, the Association of University Presses, and the Association of Research Libraries—and the generous support of the University of California, Davis. Learn more at the TOME website, available at: openmonographs.org.

Copyright 2018 by Christina Cogdell.

Toward a Living Architecture? is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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