Notes — Continued (2 of 2)

1. Ayala Levin, Architecture and Development: Israeli Construction in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Settler Colonial Imagination, 1958–1973 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2022), 91–94.

2. Important books that articulate this connection between design and development include Aggregate Architectural History Collaborative, Architecture in Development: Systems and the Emergence of the Global South (London: Routledge, 2022); Levin, Architecture and Development.

3. Lucia Allais, “Architecture and Mediocracy at UNESCO House,” in Marcel Breuer: Building Global Institutions, ed. Barry Bergdoll and Jonathan Massey (Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2018), 80–115.

4. Mark Mazower, Governing the World: The History of an Idea, 1815 to the Present (New York: Penguin, 2013), 94–115. My understanding of scientific internationalism was greatly shaped by the conference “The Science of Information, 1870–1945: The Universalization of Knowledge in a Utopian Age,” University of Pennsylvania, February 23–25, 2017. For an examination of the ways that nineteenth-century movements such as the Saint-Simonians imagined this new world order with engineers at its core and how this technopolitics played out in infrastructural projects they undertook, see Antoine Picon, Les Saint-simoniens. Raison, imaginaire et utopie (Paris: Belin, 2002). The scholarship on the unification of sciences in the twentieth century is a rather large field, but for a thorough grasp of the early twentieth-century discourse and practices see Peter Galison, “The Americanization of Unity,” Daedalus 127, no. 1 (1998): 45–71; and Peter Galison and David J. Stump, eds., The Disunity of Science: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001).

5. “Resolutions,” in International Technical Congress, ed., Proceedings of the International Technical Congress, Paris 16–21 September 1946 (Paris: World Engineering Conference, 1946), 1: 9–11.

6. In 1950, CIAM initiated an application for consultive status at ECOSOC. Correspondence is available in S-0442-0060-12, UN.

7. Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).

8. Katherine Rossy and Samantha Knapton, eds., Relief and Rehabilitation for a Postwar World?: Humanitarian Intervention and the UNRRA (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2021).

9. Letter from F. Chalmers Wright to Sir Raphael Cilento, June 8, 1947, S-0921-0005-06, UN. For an overview of Jacob Crane’s advisory role at the UN after 1952 see A. Scott Henderson, Housing and the Democratic Ideal: The Life and Thought of Charles Abrams (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 173–92.

10. Jacob Crane, “Preliminary Report on A Program of International Cooperation in Housing and Urbanism,” December 20, 1946, S-0921-0005-06, UN.

11. See S-0441-0285-21780, UN.

12. For some examples, see the valuable map in Allison Cavanagh, Sociology in the Age of the Internet (New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill, 2010), 23–47. For a discussion of network analysis in international institutions, see Emilie M. Hafner-Burton, Miles Kahler, and Alexander H. Montgomery, “Network Analysis for International Relations,” International Organization 63, no. 3 (2009): 559–92.

13. Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 408–9, 442–45.

14. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 32–33.

15. Hugh L. Keenleyside, International Aid: A Summary, with Special Reference to the Programmes of the United Nations (New York: James H. Heineman, 1966), 202–48.

16. Richard I. Miller, “Technical Assistance and the UN,” The Clearing House 33, no. 4 (1958): 198–201; Philip M. Glick, “The Choice of Instruments for Technical Co-Operation,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 323 (1959): 59–67.

17. This categorization of problem areas exists in Crane’s reports. See, for example, Jacob Crane, “Papers on Housing and Town Planning,” April 23, 1947, SA/340/202, UN.

18. Letter from Hugh Keenleyside, Director General, Technical Assistance Administration, to John H. E. Fried, January 15, 1952, S-0441-0285-21782, UN.

19. Hugh L. Keenleyside, “U.N. Technical Assistance Programme,” Pakistan Horizon 5, no. 1 (1952): 33–38.

20. Peter Mandler, “One World, Many Cultures: Margaret Mead and the Limits to Cold War Anthropology,” History Workshop Journal, no. 68 (2009): 149–72.

21. Henry W. Holmes et al., eds., Fundamental Education: Common Ground for All Peoples. Report of a Special Committee to the Preparatory Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1947), 12; and Ronald R. Kline, The Cybernetics Moment: Or Why We Call Our Age the Information Age (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2015), 37–50.

22. Here I am referring to Said’s definition of orientalism as a discourse fundamental to European epistemologies. See Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), 1–3. For a discussion of orientalism in architecture, see Mark Crinson, Empire Building: Orientalism and Victorian Architecture (London: Routledge, 1996).

23. Margaret Mead, “Fundamental Education and Cultural Values” in Holmes et al., eds., Fundamental Education, 132–55.

24. Tibor Mende, “Report on Patzcuaro: One of the World’s Most Unusual Social Experiments,” Courier V, no. 2 (February 1952): 3–4.

25. Graham Beckel and Felice Lee, Workshops for the World: The United Nations Family of Agencies (New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1954), 93–103.

26. This is an argument most recently put together by Stephen Legg et al., eds., Placing Internationalism: International Conferences and the Making of the Modern World (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2022), 1–10. Conferences also make a frequent appearance in Karen Gram-Skjoldager, Haakon A. Ikonomou, and Torsten Kahlert, eds., Organizing the 20th-Century World: International Organizations and the Emergence of International Public Administration, 1920–1960s (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2022). For an example of the role they played see one essay in this volume: Amy L. Sayward, “Food and Nutrition: Expertise Across International Epistemic Communities and Organizations, 1919–1963,” 109–25.

27. “The Greatest Housing Problem of the World: Survey of Housing Conditions in South and South East Asia,” UN Bulletin, July 1, 1951.

28. Partha Chatterjee, Empire and Nation: Selected Essays, ed. Nivedita Menon (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), 241–46, 249; Nikhil Menon, Planning Democracy: Modern India’s Quest for Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022), 119–64.

29. Gyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 168–98.

30. Ateya Khorakiwala, “The Well-Fed Subject: Modern Architecture in the Quantitative State, India (1943–1984)” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2017).

31. Letter from H. K. Sang to P. S. Lokanathan, January 31, 1949, S-0932-0010-07, UN; and Memorandum from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt to N. P. Dube, June 23, 1953, TyJ/31/9, Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA).

32. The Supplementary Agreement notes that the Basic Agreement was signed on April 2, 1952. See Supplementary Agreement No. 7 to the Basic Agreement concerning Technical Assistance between the United Nations and the Government of India, October 30, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA. For a discussion of the event within the context of India and development, see Peter Scriver and Amit Srivastava, India (London: Reaktion Books, 2015); for an examination of the exhibition within Tyrwhitt’s larger planning research, see Ellen Shoshkes, Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: A Transnational Life in Urban Planning and Design (London: Ashgate, 2013), 165–78; and, for a close look at the seminar and exhibition within the project of low-cost housing and austerity see Farhan Karim, Of Greater Dignity than Riches: Austerity and Housing Design in Postcolonial India (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 2019), 121–68.

33. Ernest Weissmann, “E. Weissmann: Professional Life,” Box 38, Weissmann Papers. Tamara Bjazic Klarin offers a thorough study of Weissmann’s early career prior to his arrival in the United States in Ernest Weissmann: društveno angažirana arhitektura, 1926–1939 [Socially engaged architecture, 1926–1939] (Zagreb: Hrvatska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti, 2015).

34. M. Ijlal Muzaffar, “Boundary Games: Ecochard, Doxiadis, and the Refugee Housing Projects under Military Rule in Pakistan, 1953–1959,” in Governing by Design, ed. Aggregate (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2012), 169.

35. Regional Seminars on Social Welfare, February 23, 1950, S-0921-0029-01, UN. For more on the place of the workshop in secondary and professional education see A. S. Barr, “Every School a Workshop,” The Journal of Educational Research 34, no. 8 (1941): 613–15; K. W. Heaton et al., Professional Education for Experienced Teachers: The Program of the Summer Workshop (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941).

36. Chapter IV—Social Welfare Seminars, February 11, 1952, S-0921-0046-06, UN.

37. Regional Seminars on Social Welfare, February 23, 1950, S-0921-0029-01, UN.

38. J. Guiton, “Studying Together in International Seminars: Short History of International Seminars,” September 15, 1949, Regional Seminars on Social Welfare, February 23, 1950, S-0921-0029-01, UN. For more on the place of workshop in secondary and professional education see A. S. Barr, “Every School a Workshop,” The Journal of Educational Research 34, no. 8 (1941): 613–15; K. W. Heaton et al., Professional Education for Experienced Teachers: The Program of the Summer Workshop (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941).

39. Regional Seminars on Social Welfare, February 23, 1950, S-0921-0029-01, UN.

40. Mark Wigley remarks on Tyrwhitt’s networking capacities in “Network Fever,” Grey Room, no. 4 (Summer 2001): 83–122.

41. Shoshkes’s thorough account of Jaqueline Tyrwhitt’s life and work demonstrates the important role she played in the post–World War II planning community. See Shoshkes, Jaqueline Tyrwhitt; Ellen Shoshkes, “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and the Internationalization of Planning Education,” in Urban Planning Education: Beginnings, Global Movement and Future Prospects, ed. Andrea I. Frank and Christopher Silver (Berlin: Springer, 2018), 65–80. For more details of the war correspondence course, see Ines Maria Zalduendo, “Jaqueline Tyrwhitt’s Correspondence Courses: Town Planning in the Trenches,” 2005, https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/13442987.

42. The seminar and exhibition involved Bodiansky, Candilis, Ecochard, and Honegger representing CIAM, while Abrams, Weissmann, Milhaud, and Reiner represented the UN. See “TA Project/Morocco: Study and Training Group on Cooperative and Aided Self-help Housing and Community Improvement, September 22, 1952,” 42-JT-12–399/404, gta Archives, ETH.

43. Letter from W. Gurney to Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, August 15, 1952, TyJ/48/2, RIBA.

44. Shoshkes, Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, 102–4.

45. Letter from Eleanor Hinder to Dr. Steinig, May 14, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

46. United Nations, “The Delhi Seminar on Housing & Planning for South East Asia, 1954, Parts II and III,” Housing & Town Planning Bulletin 9, December 9, 1954, 2, TyJ/29/2, RIBA.

47. For example, the TAA asked her to include Manila in her trip so as to attract the government of the Philippines. See letter from Marcel Schwob to Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, August 26, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

48. Some correspondence includes: letter from Eleanor Emery to Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, August 31, 1953, TyJ/31/8, RIBA; Plane Madras/Bangalore, November 21, 1953, TyJ/31/4, RIBA; and letter from N. P. Dube to Dr. Steinig, July 1, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

49. Letter from Minnette de Silva to Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, November 16, 1953, 42-JT-18–04, gta Archives, ETH. For more on Marg, see Rachel Lee and Kathleen James-Chakraborty, “Marg Magazine: A Tryst with Architectural Modernity; Modern Architecture as Seen from an Independent India,” ABE Journal. Architecture beyond Europe 1 (May 1, 2012), http://journals.openedition.org/abe/623.

50. John P. Humphrey, director of the UN Division of Human Rights, used this description while advocating for a human rights program targeting decolonized countries. He first presented his proposal at the Society for Ethical Culture on December 10, 1952 (copy in S-0917-0009-03, UN). See John P. Humphrey, Human Rights & the United Nations: A Great Adventure (Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Transnational Publishers, 1984), 204.

51. C. A. Doxiadis, “Manual of Instructions,” United Nations, P.3389U, 34705, Constantinos A. Doxiadis Archives, Athens, Greece.

52. Letter from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt to Eleanor Hinder, June 19, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

53. Housing and Town and Country Planning Section, Department of Social Affairs, United Nations, United Nations Regional Seminar on Housing and Community Improvement, New Delhi, India, 20 January–17 February 1954, TyJ/28/3, RIBA.

54. Letter to Eleanor Hinder, June 19, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA; letter from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, July 14, 1953; and letter from Eleanor Hinder to Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, November 13, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

55. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, “History of UN Seminar on Housing & Community Improvement,” May 3, 1954, TyJ/32/1, RIBA.

56. Letter from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt to Mr. Ebrahim al Kazi, September 4, 1953, Tyj/31/3, RIBA; and letter from H. L. Keenleyside to Indian Minister of Foreign Affairs, June 16, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

57. The set is here: 43-5-6-10–4-F1; 43-5-6-10–4-F3, and 43-5-6-10–4-F4, gta Archives, ETH.

58. Untitled document, May 19, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

59. United Nations, Social Progress through Community Development (New York: United Nations Bureau of Social Affairs), 37–39. For a comprehensive history of the United States’ community development projects initiatives, see Daniel Immerwahr, Thinking Small: The United States and the Lure of Community Development (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015).

60. Leonardo Zuccaro Marchi, “CIAM 8—The Heart of the City as the Symbolical Resilience of the City,” in International Planning History Society Proceedings, ed. Carola Hein (Delft: TU Delft, 2016), 2:135.

61. Eric Paul Mumford, The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928–1960 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000), 201–14.

62. Historian Gregor Paulsson proposed a genealogy of cores that went back to archetypal spaces of the history of the West. Giedion also mobilized a similar set of Western spaces in his “Historical Background to the Core.” See Gregor Paulsson, “The Past and the Present,” and Sigfried Giedion, “Historical Background to the Core,” in CIAM 8: The Heart of the City: Towards the Humanisation of Urban Life, ed. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, Josep Lluís Sert, and Ernesto N. Rogers (London: Lund Humphries, 1952), 17–29.

63. Sigfried Giedion, “The Need for a New Monumentality,” in New Architecture and City Planning: A Symposium, ed. Paul Zucker (New York: Philosophical Library, 1944). Daniel M. Abramson has argued for this in “Fairgrounds, Civic Centers, and Citizenship,” Department of Art History and Program for Urban Design and Architecture, New York University, April 19, 2021.

64. Sert is cited in Mumford, The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 206–7.

65. Tyrwhitt, Sert, and Rogers, CIAM [8], 8.

66. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, “Cores with the Urban Constellation,” in Tyrwhitt, Sert, and Rogers, CIAM [8], 103.

67. Letter from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt to Eleanor Hinder, November 9, 1953; and letter from Eleanor Hinder to Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, December 23, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

68. Technical Assistance Programme, United Nations Seminar on Housing and Community Improvement in Asia and the Far East, New Delhi, India, January 21–February 1954, December 1, 1954, TyJ/28/3, RIBA.

69. Memorandum from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt to N. P. Dube, June 23, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

70. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, “Many Problems in the Evolution of the Ideal Village,” The Stateman Engineering Feature, n.d., TyJ/39/2, RIBA

71. I borrow the term from Richard G. Fox, who has spoken in length about Gandhi’s and his disciples’ critique of Western focus on industrialization and progress as a utopian project. See Gandhian Utopia: Experiments with Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 37–39.

72. Mohandas Gandhi, Village Swaraj (Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan Publishing House, 1962), 30–32.

73. Ateya Khorakiwala, The Well-Tempered Environment: Modern Architecture in the Quantitative State, India (1943–1984) (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2016).

74. This is an argument advanced most prominently by Partha Chatterjee in his criticism of Sarvepalli Gopal’s biography of Nehru. See A Possible India: Essays in Political Criticism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 31–34, 40–50. See also M. S. Swaminathan, “Jawaharlal Nehru and Agriculture in Independent India,” Current Science 59, no. 6 (1990): 303–7.

75. Alice Thorner, “Nehru, Albert Mayer, and Origins of Community Projects,” Economic and Political Weekly 16, no. 4 (1981): 117–20; and Nicole Sackley, “Village Models: Etawah, India, and the Making and Remaking of Development in the Early Cold War,” Diplomatic History 37, no. 4 (September 2013): 749–78.

76. For a historical examination of the project see Sackley, “Village Models”; and Nick Cullather, The Hungry World: America’s Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013), 80–94.

77. Albert Mayer, Pilot Project, India: The Story of Rural Development at Etawah, Uttar Pradesh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958), 12–29.

78. Karim offers a thorough analysis of the role that the exhibition played in the production of postcolonial Indian modernity, particularly in relationship to low-cost housing, in Of Greater Dignity than Riches, 121–68.

79. See especially Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and Patrick Geddes, Patrick Geddes in India (London: Lund Humphries, 1947), 57, 62, 64, 84–85.

80. Letter from Eleanor Hinder to P. S. Lokanathan, June 3, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

81. Memorandum from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt to N. P. Dube, June 23, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

82. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, “Creation of the Village Centre (Delhi),” Ekistics 52, no. 314/315 (1985): 431.

83. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, “Many Problems in the Evolution of the Ideal Village,” The Statesman Engineering Feature, n.d., TyJ/39/2, RIBA

84. Memorandum from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt to N. P. Dube, June 23, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

85. Letter from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt to Eleanor Hinder, June 10, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

86. R. B. Gupta, “Housing and Community Improvement Programmes,” in UN Housing & Community Improvement Seminar, New Delhi, 1954, Box 36030, Doxiadis Archives.

87. N. Krishnaswami, “Housing in India & 5 Year Plan,” in UN Housing & Community Improvement Seminar, New Delhi, 1954, Box 36030, Doxiadis Archives.

88. N. Krishnaswami, “Housing in India & 5 Year Plan.”

89. Joseph M. Neufeld, “Community Core,” in UN Housing & Community Improvement Seminar, New Delhi, 1954, Box 36030, Doxiadis Archives.

90. Much of this documentation has been hard to unearth at the UN archives for a multitude of reasons: archiving systems kept changing; when offices closed, files were lost in the transfer; finding aids were designed to construct departmental histories and not document events.

91. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt Notes, July 14, 1953, TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

92. United Nations Housing & Community Improvement, Memorandum, February 2, 1954, TyJ/29/3, RIBA.

93. Letter from Eleanor Hinder to Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, January 29, 1954. TyJ/31/9, RIBA.

94. Marshall McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962). Ginger Nolan offers a critique in The Neocolonialism of the Global Village (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2018). For the historical connections between McLuhan’s “global village” and Tyrwhitt’s “village center,” see Olga Touloumi, “Globalizing the Village: Development Media, Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, and the United Nations in India,” in Architecture in Development: Systems and the Emergence of the Global South, ed. Aggregate (London: Routledge, 2022), 259–77.

95. See Tropical Housing & Planning Monthly Bulletin 3 (October 1955), Doxiadis Archives.

96. United Nations Regional Seminar on Housing and Community Improvement, Final Draft of Conclusions. TyJ/28/3, RIBA.

97. Margaret Mead and Paul Byers, The Small Conference: An Innovation in Communication (The Hague: Mouton, 1968), v.

98. Mead and Byers, The Small Conference, vi.

99. Mead and Byers, The Small Conference, 4.

100. Mead and Byers, The Small Conference, 5.

1. Johnson cited in Christopher E. M. Pearson, Designing UNESCO: Art, Architecture and International Politics at Mid-Century (London: Routledge, 2010), 220n62.

2. The International Council at the Museum of Modern Art, Press Release, “Design for US Room at UNESCO Headquarters Described by Architects,” August 5, 1958, MoMA Archives; Helen M. Franc, “The Early Years of the International Program and Council,” in The Museum of Modern Art at Mid-Century: At Home and Abroad, ed. John Elderfield (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1994), 131–32; Pearson, Designing UNESCO, 213.

3. “Gifts from 19 Nations,” The UNESCO Courier: A Window Open to the World XI, no. 11 (November 1958): 28; “Ultra-Modern Meeting Place,” The UNESCO Courier: A Window Open to the World XI, no. 11 (November 1958): 25.

4. Pearson, Designing UNESCO, 113–223; Lucia Allais, “Architecture and Mediocracy at UNESCO House,” in Marcel Breuer: Building Global Institutions, ed. Barry Bergdoll and Jonathan Massey (Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2018), 81–115.

5. Joëlle Kuntz, Genève internationale: 100 ans d’architecture (Geneva: Editions Slatkine, 2017), 91–93.

6. Kuntz, Genève internationale, 104–12.

7. Kuntz, Genève internationale, 119–28.

8. The World Intellectual Property Organization (1978), the World Meteorological Organization (1999), the European Organization for Nuclear Research (2002), and the Maison de la paix (2014).

9. In 1984 ECLA changed its name to Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).

10. Emilio Duhart, “United Nations Building, Santiago, Chile,” Architectural Design 37 (January 1967): 33–37.

11. Duhart, “United Nations Building, Santiago, Chile,” 36.

12. Letter from Edgar Kaufmann Jr. to Max Abramovitz, May 10, 1950, S-0472-0001-13, UN.

13. Letter from George R. Collins to Glenn Bennett, July 31, 1950, S-0472-0001-13, UN.

14. Letter from Lemuel C. Dillenback to Michael M. Harris, October 23, 1950, S-0472-0001-13, UN.

15. Letter from Lee Clemmer to Glenn Bennett, January 13, 1951, S-0472-0001-13, UN.

16. A French, Norwegian, and Japanese delegation toured the headquarters as early as 1951. See S-0472-0001-13, UN.

17. Correspondence between the Rockefellers and Chase Manhattan Bank can be found in SIII-2Q Box 28, Folder 242, The Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, New York.

18. Arthur Drexler, Buildings for Business and Government. Exhibition: February 25–April 28, 1957 (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1957), 6, https://www.moma.org/documents/moma_catalogue_3349_300190165.pdf.

19. Marcial Tamayo, “The United Nations: A Rich Source of Information,” in The Diplomatic Persuaders: New Role of the Mass Media in International Relations, ed. John Lee (New York: Wiley, 1968), 194–95; Dexter Fergie, “Stewards of Internationalism: United Nations Tour Guides, Gender, and Public Diplomacy, 1952–1977,” Diplomatic History, forthcoming.

20. Anastasia Remes, “Europe at the Expo: The Pavilions of the European Community in Universal Expositions” (PhD diss., European University Institute, 2022); Anastasia Remes, “Exhibiting European Integration at Expo 58: The European Coal and Steel Community Pavilion,” in World Fairs and the Global Moulding of National Identities: International Exhibitions as Cultural Platforms, 1851–1958, ed. Joep Leerssen and Eric Storm (Leiden: Brill, 2021), 375–403; Rika Devos, Mil De Kooning, and Geert Bekaert, eds., L’architecture moderne à l’Expo 58: pour un monde plus humain (Brussels: Dexia/Fonds Mercator, 2006).

21. Remes, “Exhibiting European Integration,” 396.

22. This is an argument made by Nathalie Tousignant, “Geopolitics and Spatiality at Expo 58: The International, Foreign and Belgian Colonial Sections,” in Expo 58: Between Utopia and Reality, ed. Gonzague Pluvinage (Brussels: Editions Racine, 2008), 95–118. See David Allen, “International Exhibitionism: The League of Nations at the New York World’s Fair,” in International Organizations and the Media in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Exorbitant Expectations, ed. Jonas Brendebach, Martin Herzer, and Heidi J. S. Tworek (London: Routledge, 2018), 91–116; Jonathan Voges, “The International Institute for Intellectual Co-Operation at the World Fair 1937 in Paris: Profiling Internationalism in a ‘Hyper-Nationalistic’ Context?,” in Leerssen and Storm, World Fairs, 357–74; Jonathan Voges, “Scientific Internationalism in a Time of Crisis: The Month of Intellectual Cooperation at the 1937 Paris World Fair,” in Placing Internationalism: International Conferences and the Making of the Modern World, ed. Stephen Legg et al. (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2022), 104–17.

23. Quote found in Tousignant, “Geopolitics and Spatiality at Expo 58,” 103.

24. Glenda Sluga, “Hollywood, the United Nations, and the Long History of Film Communicating Internationalism,” in Brendebach, Herzer, and Tworek, International Organizations, 138–57.

25. Sluga, “Hollywood, the United Nations,” 138–57.

26. Nico Israel, “Serving Man: The United Nations Art Collection, Mid-Century Modernisms, and the Apparition of Universality,” Modernism / Modernity 4, no. 4 (2020), https://modernismmodernity.org/articles/israel-serving-man.

27. Mark D. Alleyne, Global Lies?: Propaganda, the UN and World Order (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003), 78–86.

28. “History of National Model United Nations,” n.d., https://www.nmun.org/assets/documents/about-nmun/mission-and-history/nmun-history.pdf.

29. Seth Center argues that the UN General Assembly facilitated advocacy for nonaligned member states. See “Supranational Public Diplomacy: The Evolution of the UN Department of Public Information and the Rise of Third World Advocacy,” in The United States and Public Diplomacy: New Directions in Cultural and International History, ed. Kenneth A. Osgood and Brian C. Etheridge (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2010), 135–64.

30. Dubravka Sekulić, “Non-Aligned (Round) Table and Its Discontents” (Rijeka, 2021).