Notes

1. I am thankful to Vjeran Kursar for confirming this translation.

2. Slavenka Drakulić makes the case that Praljak used his directorial background to orchestrate a message for domestic audiences; see “Playing to the Audience: The Televised Suicide of Slobodan Praljak,” Eurozine, December 12, 2017, https://www.eurozine.com/playing-to-the-audience-the-televised-suicide-of-slobodan-praljak.

3. The spatial presentation of justice as even-handed and uncontaminated was so important to the legitimacy of the proceedings that, according to Judge Lal Chand Vohrah, ICTY had to find a new space for the prosecution outside the Aegon Insurance Building that Courtroom One occupied. See L. C. Vohrah, “Some Insights into the Early Years,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 2, no. 2 (June 1, 2004): 388–95.

4. Laura Kurgan, “Residues: ICTY Courtroom No. 1 and the Architecture of Justice,” Alphabet City Magazine 7 (2001): 112–29.

5. Megan A. Black uses the metaphor of the “global interior” to underpin the imperialistic aspirations of the U.S. Department of Interior, particularly in relation to mineral extraction, in the post–World War II periods. See The Global Interior: Mineral Frontiers and American Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2018), 1–15.

6. For an intellectual history of world governance and the transition from empires to international institutions, see Mark Mazower, Governing the World: The History of an Idea, 1815 to the Present (New York: Penguin Books, 2013); Or Rosenboim, The Emergence of Globalism: Visions of World Order in Britain and the United States 1939–1950 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017); Guy Fiti Sinclair, To Reform the World: International Organizations and the Making of Modern States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017); Adom Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire: The Rise and Fall of Self-Determination (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019); Quinn Slobodian, Globalists: The End of Empire and the Birth of Neoliberalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2018).

7. Cornelius Castoriadis, The Imaginary Institution of Society, trans. Kathleen Blamey (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1998), 340–73.

8. Cornelius Castoriadis, “The Imaginary: Creation in the Social Historical Domain,” in World in Fragments: Writings on Politics, Society, Psychoanalysis, and the Imagination, trans. David Ames Curtis (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997), 3–18.

9. “UN Site—Symbol of UN Job,” in United Nations World, April 1947, Box 3, Folder 104, Avery Architecture and Fine Arts Library, Columbia University, New York City, New York (Avery).

10. Jane C. Loeffler and Ezra Stoller, The United Nations (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999); Adam Bartos and Christopher Hitchens, International Territory: The United Nations, 1945–95 (London: Verso, 1994); Aaron Betsky and Ben Murphy, The U.N. Building (London: Thames & Hudson, 2005), 10–28.

11. George A. Dudley, A Workshop for Peace: Designing the United Nations Headquarters (Cambridge: The Architectural History Foundation, MIT Press, 1994).

12. Stanislaus von Moos, Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988), 248–51; Styliane Philippou, Oscar Niemeyer: Curves of Irreverence (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 137–40; Aliki Economides, “Modern Savoir-Faire: Ernest Cormier, ‘Architect and Engineer-Constructor,’ and Architecture’s Representational Constructions” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2015), 308–27; Victoria Newhouse, Wallace K. Harrison, Architect (New York: Rizzoli, 1989), 104–43.

13. I am including here a selection of recent work and groundbreaking treatises that have informed my own perspective. See Anooradha Iyer Siddiqi and Rachel Lee, “On Margins: Feminist Architectural Histories of Migration,” ABE Journal 16 (December 31, 2019); Naomi Stead, Janina Gosseye, and Deborah van der Plaat, Speaking of Buildings: Oral History in Architectural Research (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2019); Hélène Frichot, Catharina Gabrielsson, and Helen Runting, eds., Architecture and Feminisms: Ecologies, Economies, Technologies (London: Routledge, 2018); Mary Pepchinski, Frau Architekt: seit mehr als 100 Jahren: Frauen im Architektenberuf [Over 100 years of women as professional architects] (Tübingen: Wasmuth, 2017); Feminist Art and Architecture Collaborative, “Counterplanning from the Classroom,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 76, no. 3 (September 2017): 277–80; Alice T. Friedman, Women and the Making of the Modern House: A Social and Architectural History (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2009); Diana Agrest, Patricia Conway, and Leslie Weisman, The Sex of Architecture (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996); Dolores Hayden, The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1981).

14. Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Arthur Drexler, eds., Built in USA: Post-War Architecture (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1952), 22–23.

15. Reyner Banham, The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment (London: Architectural Press, 1969), 221–23; Alexandra Quantrill, “The Aesthetics of Precision: Environmental Management and Technique in the Architecture of Enclosure, 1946–1986” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2017), 26–76; Joseph M. Siry, Air-Conditioning in Modern American Architecture, 1890–1970 (State College: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2021).

16. Rem Koolhaas, Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan (New York: Monacelli Press, 1994).

17. Ada Louise Huxtable, Four Walking Tours of Modern Architecture in New York City (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1958), 54–56.

18. William J. R. Curtis, Modern Architecture since 1900 (London: Phaidon, 1982), 267; Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman, Architecture: From Prehistory to Postmodernity, 2nd ed. (Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 2003), 517; Manfredo Tafuri and Francesco Dal Co, Modern Architecture: History of World Architecture, trans. Robert Erich Wolf (New York: Electa/Rizzoli, 1986), 2:317; Peter Gössel and Gabriele Leuthäuser, Architecture in the Twentieth Century (Köln: Taschen, 2005), 225; Jean-Louis Cohen, The Future of Architecture, Since 1889 (London: Phaidon, 2012), 338. More recently, Mark Crinson critically placed the UN and its Headquarters within a larger history of internationalist projects that span from Otto Neurath’s visual language to the anti-colonial visions of the Indian Marg Magazine. Crinson asks us to consider internationalism as a design imperative that mobilized modern architects across continents and political contexts. See Rebuilding Babel: Modern Architecture and Internationalism (London: I. B. Tauris, 2017).

19. Lewis Mumford, “UN Model and Model UN,” “A Disoriented Symbol,” and “Buildings as Symbols,” in From the Ground Up: Observations On Contemporary Architecture, Housing, Highway Building, And Civic Design (Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1956).

20. Giedion’s criticism stems from a partisan devotion to Le Corbusier, who enlisted him to convince Harrison to keep him. See Sigfried Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition, 5th ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 532, 564–65, 685.

21. Samuel Zipp, Manhattan Projects: The Rise and Fall of Urban Renewal in Cold War New York (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 33–72; Robert A. M. Stern, Thomas Mellins, and David Fishman, New York 1960: Architecture and Urbanism between the Second World War and the Bicentennial (New York: Monacelli Press, 1997), 601–40; Linda Sue Phipps, “Constructing the United Nations Headquarters: Modern Architecture as Public Diplomacy” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1998); Charlene Mires, Capital of the World: The Race to Host the United Nations (New York: New York University Press, 2015), 194–218; Jessica Field, “United Nations Headquarters, New York: The Cultural-Political Economy of Space and Iconicity,” Journal of History and Cultures 1 (2012): 19–36.

22. For example, see Samuel Isenstadt, “‘Faith in a Better Future’: Josep Lluis Sert’s American Embassy in Baghdad,” Journal of Architectural Education (1984-) 50, no. 3 (1997): 172–88; Elizabeth Gill Lui, Keya Keita, and Jane C. Loeffler, Building Diplomacy (Los Angeles: Four Stops Press, 2004); Cammie McAtee, “All-over inside-out: Eero Saarinen’s United States Embassy in London,” in The Politics of Furniture: Identity, Diplomacy and Persuasion in Post-War Interiors, ed. Fredie Floré and Cammie McAtee (London: Routledge, 2017).

23. Jane Loeffler has offered a monumental account of the program-building embassies in The Architecture of Diplomacy: Building America’s Embassies (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1998). The U.S. Pavilion curators for the 2014 Venice Biennale offer a similar argument through an extensive look at the global outreach of U.S. architectural offices; see Eva Franch i Gilabert, et al., eds., OfficeUS: Atlas (Zürich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2015).

24. See Reinhold Martin, The Organizational Complex: Architecture, Media, and Corporate Space (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005); John Harwood, The Interface: IBM and the Transformation of Corporate Design, 1945–1976 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011).

25. Lucia Allais, Designs of Destruction: The Making of Monuments in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018); Felicity D. Scott, Outlaw Territories: Environments of Insecurity/Architectures of Counterinsurgency (Cambridge: Zone Books, 2016); M. Ijlal Muzaffar, “The Periphery Within: Modern Architecture and the Making of the Third World” (PhD diss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007); Lukasz Stanek, Architecture in Global Socialism: Eastern Europe, West Africa, and the Middle East in the Cold War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2020); Aggregate (Group), Architecture in Development: Systems and the Emergence of the Global South (London: Routledge, 2022).

26. Fredie Floré and Cammie D. McAtee, eds., The Politics of Furniture: Identity, Diplomacy and Persuasion in Post-War Interiors (London: Routledge, 2017), 1–11.

27. Most specifically on the kitchen debate, see Greg Castillo, Cold War on the Home Front: The Soft Power of Midcentury Design (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010); Beatriz Colomina, “Enclosed by Images: The Eameses’ Multimedia Architecture,” Grey Room, no. 2 (2001): 7–29.

28. Castillo, Cold War on the Home Front; Gay McDonald, “Selling the American Dream: MoMA, Industrial Design and Post-War France,” Journal of Design History 17, no. 4 (2004): 397–412.

29. Iris Moon, The Architecture of Percier and Fontaine and the Struggle for Sovereignty in Revolutionary France (London: Routledge, 2016); Joseph Berger, “Still No Place in New York for Qaddafi’s Tent,” The New York Times, September 23, 2009.

30. Iris Moon, “Occupation, Interior Decoration and the Tent at Napoleon’s First Official Residence, Malmaison,” 33rd Annual NESAH Student Symposium, Cambridge, Massachusetts, January 20, 2011.

31. For a nuanced reading of this conflation of interiority and interiors see Charles Rice, The Emergence of the Interior: Architecture, Modernity, Domesticity (London: Routledge, 2007); Beate Söntgen and Ewa Lajer-Burcharth, Interiors and Interiority (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2016); Diana Fuss, Sense of an Interior: Four Rooms and the Writers That Shaped Them (London: Routledge, 2004).

32. Peter Galison and Emily Ann Thompson, The Architecture of Science (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999); Robin Evans, The Fabrication of Virtue: English Prison Architecture, 1750–1840 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Susie McKellar and Penny Sparke, eds., Interior Design and Identity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004); Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception, trans. Alan Sheridan (London: Routledge, 1994); Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish. The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1977); Mark Pimlott, The Public Interior as Idea and Project (Heijningen, Netherlands: Jap Sam Books, 2016), 10–11.

33. Peter Sloterdijk, In the World Interior of Capital: For a Philosophical Theory of Globalization, trans. Wieland Hoban (Cambridge: Polity, 2017), 6.

34. To discuss the limitations of democratic models, Sloterdijk points to the National Assembly in revolutionary France, when the representatives of the Third Estate attempted to bring the revolt into spaces of governance, taking over and renaming venues of the ancient regime. He identifies the moment of the Festival of the Federation, the massive celebration of the Storming of the Bastille, as a moment of realization of the tragedy of assembling. See Peter Sloterdijk, Spheres. Volume 3, Foams: Plural Spherology (South Pasadena, Calif.: Semiotext(e), 2016), 567–83, 608–9.

35. Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996); Lydia Kallipoliti, The Architecture of Closed Worlds (Zürich: Lars Müller, 2018); Andrea Vesentini, Indoor America: The Interior Landscape of Postwar Suburbia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2018).

36. For a discussion of the focus on the “democratic personality” in cultural production in the United States, see Fred Turner, The Democratic Surround: Multimedia and American Liberalism from World War II to the Psychedelic Sixties (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 39–76.

37. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958).

38. For a comparative analysis of the Arendt, Habermas, and Rawls conceptualizations of the public sphere see Seyla Benhabib, “The Embattled Public Sphere: Hannah Arendt, Juergen Habermas and Beyond,” Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory, no. 90 (1997): 1–24.

39. Nancy Fraser, “Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy,” Social Text 25/26 (1990): 56–80.

40. See Alexander John Watson, Marginal Man: The Dark Vision of Harold Innis (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006).

41. Harold Adams Innis, Empire and Communications (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2008), 21–32, 138–63; Harold A. Innis, The Bias of Communication (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1951).

42. Erkki Huhtamo and Jussi Parikka, eds., Media Archaeology: Approaches, Applications, and Implications (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 1–21.

43. Dwayne R. Winseck and Robert M. Pike, Communication and Empire: Media, Markets, and Globalization, 1860–1930 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007).

44. Nicole Starosielski, The Undersea Network (Durham: Duke University Press, 2015).

45. Lisa Parks, Cultures in Orbit: Satellites and the Televisual (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005).

46. Karl W. Deutsch, The Nerves of Government: Models of Political Communication and Control (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963), 27.

47. I use here Agatha C. Hughes and Thomas P. Hughes, Systems, Experts, and Computers: The Systems Approach in Management and Engineering, World War II and After (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000); Jennifer S. Light, From Warfare to Welfare (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003).

48. W. Boyd Rayward, ed., European Modernism and the Information Society: Informing the Present, Understanding the Past (London: Routledge, 2017).

49. Peter Galison, “Aufbau/Bauhaus: Logical Positivism and Architectural Modernism,” Critical Inquiry 16, no. 4 (Summer 1990): 709–52; Peter Galison and David J. Stump, eds., The Disunity of Science: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001), 1–36; Mazower, Governing the World, 94–115.

50. For some examples see Nader Vossoughian, Otto Neurath: The Language of the Global Polis (Rotterdam: NAi, 2011); Markus Krajewski, World Projects: Global Information before World War I, trans. Charles Marcrum (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2015); William Rankin, After the Map: Cartography, Navigation, and the Transformation of Territory in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).

51. Jonas Brendebach, Martin Herzer, and Heidi J. S. Tworek, eds., International Organizations and the Media in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Exorbitant Expectations (London: Routledge, 2018), 1–16.

52. Rosenboim, The Emergence of Globalism, 45.

53. Susan Buck-Morss, “A Global Public Sphere?,” Radical Philosophy (blog), February 2002, https://www.radicalphilosophy.com/commentary/a-global-public-sphere; Mary Kaldor, “The Idea of Global Civil Society,” International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) 79, no. 3 (2003): 583–93; Manuel Castells, “The New Public Sphere: Global Civil Society, Communication Networks, and Global Governance,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616 (March 2008): 78–93; Ingrid Volkmer, The Global Public Sphere: Public Communication in the Age of Reflective Interdependence (Cambridge: Polity, 2014).

54. Castells, “The New Public Sphere: Global Civil Society, Communication Networks, and Global Governance,” 91.

55. Danielle Allen, “Reconceiving Public Spheres: The Flow Dynamics Model,” in From Voice to Influence: Understanding Citizenship in a Digital Age, ed. Danielle S. Allen and Jennifer S. Light (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 178–208.

56. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity At Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 32–36.

57. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 170.

58. Brian R. Jacobson, Studios Before the System: Architecture, Technology, and the Emergence of Cinematic Space (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015); Brian R. Jacobson, In the Studio: Visual Creation and Its Material Environments (Oakland: University of California Press, 2020); Susan Schmidt Horning, Chasing Sound: Technology, Culture & the Art of Studio Recording from Edison to the LP (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013); Shundana Yusaf, Broadcasting Buildings: Architecture on the Wireless, 1927–1945 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2014); Lynn Spigel, TV by Design: Modern Art and the Rise of Network Television (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 110–43.

59. Kate Lacey, Listening Publics: The Politics and Experience of Listening in the Media Age (Cambridge: Polity, 2013), 7.

60. Carolyn Birdsall, Nazi Soundscapes: Sound, Technology and Urban Space during Nazi Germany (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2012).

61. Turner, The Democratic Surround, 2–5, 39–76.

62. Emily Ann Thompson, The Soundscape of Modernity: Architectural Acoustics and the Culture of Listening in America, 1900–1933 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002); Joseph L. Clarke, Echo’s Chambers: Architecture and the Idea of Acoustic Space (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2021).

63. I have previously argued this point in Olga Touloumi, “Sound in Silence: Design and Listening Cultures in the Woodberry Poetry Room,” The Journal of Architecture 23, no. 6 (2018): 1003–29; and Sabine von Fischer and Olga Touloumi, “Sound Modernities: Histories of Media and Modern Architecture,” The Journal of Architecture 23, no. 6 (2018): 873–80.

64. Steven Feld, “Acoustemology,” in Keywords in Sound, ed. David Novak and Matt Sakakeeny (Durham: Duke University Press, 2015), 112–24.

65. Timothy Hyde, “The Building Site, Redux,” Journal of Architectural Education 75, no. 1 (January 2, 2021): 84–93.

66. Pierre Bourdieu, “Site Effects,” in The Weight of the World: Social Suffering and Impoverishment, trans. Priscilla Parkhurst Ferguson (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999), 123–29.

67. See for example Glenda Sluga, The Invention of International Order: Remaking Europe after Napoleon (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021); Stella Ghervas, Conquering Peace: From the Enlightenment to the European Union (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2021).

68. Bob Duynstee, et al., The Building of Peace: A Hundred Years of Work on Peace through Law: The Peace Palace, 1913–2013 (Amsterdam: Carnegie Foundation, 2013), 50–77; Arthur Eyffinger, The Peace Palace: Residence for Justice, Domicile of Learning (The Hague: Carnegie Foundation, 1992); Diana Palazova-Lebleu, “La place de Louis-Marie et Louis-Stanislas Cordonnier dans les évolutions architecturales et urbanistiques en Europe septentrionale, 1881–1940” (PhD diss., Lille, Université de Lille 3—Charles de Gaulle, 2009).

69. Shiben Banerji, Lineages of the Global City: Occult Modernism and the Spiritualization of Democracy (Austin: University of Texas Press, forthcoming).

70. Sonne, Representing the State, 242, citing Otto Antonia Graf, Die vergessene Wagnerschule (Vienna, 1969), 31.

71. Sonne, Representing the State, 255; Wouter Van Acker and Geert Somsen, “A Tale of Two World Capitals: The Internationalisms of Pieter Eijkman and Paul Otlet,” Revue Belge de Philologie et d’Histoire 90, no. 4 (2012): 1389–1409.

72. Koos Bosma, “World Centre of Communication 1912,” in Mastering the City: North-European City Planning 1900–2000 (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 1998), 176–83.

73. Hendrik Christian Andersen et al., Creation of a World Centre of Communication (Paris: Philippe Renouard, 1913), 1: 13–97.

74. Anna Ciotta, La cultura della comunicazione nel piano del Centro mondiale di Hendrik Ch. Andersen e di Ernest M. Hébrard (Milan, Italy: FrancoAngeli, 2011).

75. See, for example, Andersen, Creation of a World Centre of Communication, 1: 6–9.

76. See also A. E. Richardson, “A Capitol for the League of Nations,” The Architects’ Journal 49 (March 26, 1919): 183–85; and several articles in The Architectural Review 46 (December 1919): Patrick Abercrombie, “Planning a City for the League of Nations,” 151–54; Major H. Barnes, “Messrs. Andersen and Hébrard’s Scheme,” 138; Sir Aston Webb, “A World Centre: The Home for the League of Nations: A Suggestion,” 135–36; Robert Cecil, “The League of Peace as a Living Organism,” 133–34.

77. Society of Beaux-Arts Architects, “Official Notification of Awards, Judgment of November 24, 1919, Final Competition for the 12th Paris Prize of the Society of Beaux-Arts Architects,” The American Architect 117 (January 28, 1920): 117–20; G.L., “Le Grand Prix de Rome d’architecture,” L’Architecture 32 (1919): 722–26.

78. Architectural Competition for the Erection of a League of Nations Building at Geneva, Report of the Jury, May 23, 1927, C 239 M 97 1927, R1537, League of Nations Archives, United Nations Office in Geneva (UNOG), Geneva.

79. John Ritter, “World Parliament: The League of Nations Competition, 1926,” Architectural Review 136 (July 1964): 17–24; Kenneth Frampton, “The League of Nations, the Centrosoyus and the Palace of the Soviets, 1926–31,” Architectural Design 55, no. 7–8 (n.d.): 41–55; Moos, Le Corbusier.

80. Sabine von Fischer, “Debating Volume: Architectural Versus Electrical Amplification in the League of Nations, 1926–28,” The Journal of Architecture 23, no. 6 (2018): 904–35.

81. F. M. Osswald, “The Acoustics of the Large Assembly Hall of the League of Nations, at Geneva, Switzerland,” The American Architect 134 (December 20, 1928): 833–42.

82. Hannes Meyer, “The New World (1926),” in The Weimar Republic Sourcebook, ed. Anton Kaes, Martin Jay, and Edward Dimendberg (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 446–48.

83. Meyer, “The New World (1926),” 447.

84. Pallas, Histoire et architecture du Palais des Nations, 54–60; Kenneth Frampton, “The Humanist v. the Utilitarian Ideal,” Architectural Design 38 (March 1968): 134–36; Dennis Sharp, “Architectural Competitions: A Watershed between Old and New” and Kenneth Frampton, “Le Corbusier at Geneva: The Debacle of the Société des Nations,” both in Architects in Competition: International Architectural Competitions of the Last 200 Years, ed. Hilde de Haan and Ids Haagsma (London: Thames and Hudson, 1988), 181–91, 193–203.

85. Pallas, Histoire et architecture du Palais des Nations, 89–93.

86. A. Louvet, “Projets de quelques architectes français ayant pris part au concours pour le Palais de La Société des Nations à Genève,” L’Architecture. Revue mensuelle de la corporation des architectes publiée par la société centrale des architectes 41, no. 11 (November 15, 1928): 359–70; “The British Designs at Geneva,” The Architect & Building News, December 9, 1927, 881–87.

87. Alex Wright, Cataloguing the World: Paul Otlet and the Birth of Information Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014); Françoise Levie and Benoît Peeters, L’homme qui voulait classer le monde. Paul Otlet et le Mundaneum (Bruxelles: Impressions nouvelles, 2006); Wouter van Acker, “La remédiation de la connaissance encyclopédique,” and Charles van den Heuvel, “Paul Otlet et les versions historiques de la genèse du World Wide Web, du web sémantique et du web 2.0,” both in Paul Otlet, Fondateur du Mundaneum (1868–1944): architecte du savoir, artisan de paix, ed. Jacques Gillen, Stéphanie Manfroid, and Raphaèle Cornille (Brussels: Impressions nouvelles, 2010), 177–198, 159–75.

88. Otlet, Mundaneum, 3.

89. Otlet, Mundaneum, 30–40.

90. See, for example, P.V., “Le Palais de La Société Des Nations: Architectes Nenot et Flegenheimer, Broggi, Lefevre et J. Vago,” L’Architecture d’aujourd’hui 10 (May 1939): 3–5.

91. Howard Robertson, “The League of Nations Buildings, Geneva,” The Architect & Building News 149 (January 22, 1937): 118–21.

92. Robertson, “The League of Nations Buildings,” 121.

93. Jean-Louis Cohen, Architecture in Uniform: Designing and Building for the Second World War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011).

1. Sabina Ferhadbegović, Kerstin von Lingen, and Julia Eichenberg, “The United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC), 1943–1948, and the Codification of International Criminal Law: An Introduction to the Special Issue,” Journal of the History of International Law / Revue d’histoire Du Droit International 24, no. 3 (2022): 305–14, https://doi.org/10.1163/15718050-12340208; Julia Eichenberg, “Crossroads in London on the Road to Nuremberg: The London International Assembly, Exile Governments and War Crimes,” Journal of the History of International Law / Revue d’histoire Du Droit International 24, no. 3 (2022): 334–53, https://doi.org/10.1163/15718050-bja10071.

2. Letter from Edward Stettinius to General William J. Donovan, January 10, 1945, Oliver Lincoln Lundquist Papers (Lundquist Papers), Bard College, New York.

3. Letter to H. C. Barton Jr and Donal McLaughlin, February 26, 1945, Donal McLaughlin Papers and Estate (McLaughlin Papers), Takoma Park, Maryland.

4. On the beginnings of OSS, see Barry Katz, Foreign Intelligence: Research and Analysis in the Office of Strategic Services, 1942–1945 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 1–28; Jennifer Davis Heaps, “Tracking Intelligence Information: The Office of Strategic Services,” The American Archivist 61, no. 2 (1998): 287–308; Bradley F. Smith, The Shadow Warriors: O.S.S. and the Origins of the C.I.A. (London: Deutsch, 1983).

5. Letter from Donal McLaughlin to Dorwin Teague, February 12, 1999, McLaughlin Papers.

6. Barry Katz, “The Arts of War: ‘Visual Presentation’ and National Intelligence,” Design Issues 12, no. 2 (1996): 3–21.

7. Julia Moszkowicz, “Gestalt and Graphic Design: An Exploration of the Humanistic and Therapeutic Effects of Visual Organization,” Design Issues 27, no. 4 (2011): 56–67; Zeynep Çelik Alexander, Kinaesthetic Knowing: Aesthetics, Epistemology, Modern Design (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018), 167–202; Frederic J. Schwartz, The Werkbund: Design Theory and Mass Culture before the First World War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), 96–105.

8. Nader Vossoughian, Otto Neurath: The Language of the Global Polis (Rotterdam: NAi, 2011); Eve Blau, “Isotype and Architecture in Red Vienna: The Modern Projects of Otto Neurath and Josef Frank,” Austrian Studies 14 (2006): 227–59; Wim Jansen, “Neurath, Arntz and ISOTYPE: The Legacy in Art Design and Statistics,” Journal of Design History 22, no. 3 (2009): 227–42; Whitney Battle-Baptiste and Britt Rusert, eds., W. E. B. Du Bois’s Data Portraits: Visualizing Black America; The Color Line at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (Hudson, N.Y.: Princeton Architectural Press, 2018).

9. Mark Corrinet, Interview with Donal McLaughlin, December 11, 1993, McLaughlin Papers.

10. Alger Hiss and Oliver Lundquist, “Conference—Stage Arrangements,” March 30, 1945, Jo Mielziner Papers, Box 81, Folder 1, Billy Rose Theatre Division, The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts (NYPL), New York, New York.

11. Oliver Lundquist, “Visual Presentation 1941–1945,” September 2004, Lundquist Papers.

12. Carl Marzani, The Education of a Reluctant Radical: From Pentagon to Penitentiary, (New York: Topical Books, 1995), 4: 87.

13. Letter from Donal McLaughlin to Carl Marzani, July 14, 1993, McLaughlin Papers.

14. “Brian McLaughlin interviews father, Donal McLaughlin Jr,” September 25, 1984, McLaughlin Papers.

15. Autobiographical Notes of Donal McLaughlin, March 23, 1991, McLaughlin Papers.

16. Mark Corrinet, Interview with Donal McLaughlin, December 11, 1993, McLaughlin Papers.

17. United States Congress Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Activities of United States Citizens Employed by the United Nations: Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Eighty-Second Congress, Second Session [Eighty-Third Congress, First-Second Session] (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1952), 150–51.

18. Letter from Ed Stettinius to Richard Wilson, April 17, 1945, Lundquist Papers.

19. The team also joined Ivan Spear, Jack Becker, David M. Flax, Marty Vaill, and Richard Opfar. See OSS Presentation Branch Production Meetings, 28 March–16 April 1945, McLaughlin Papers.

20. Carl Marzani, manuscript narrative, p. 127, McLaughlin Papers.

21. For a discussion of the memorial complex, see Leta Miller, “Opera as Politics: The Troubled History of San Francisco’s War Memorial Opera House,” California History 92, no. 4 (2015): 4–23.

22. United Nations Conference on International Organization, ed., Guide: The United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, 1945 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1945).

23. OSS Presentation Branch Production Meetings, 28 March–16 April 1945, McLaughlin Papers.

24. Walter Winchell, “In San Francisco,” NY Daily Mirror, April 25, 1945.

25. Oliver Lundquist, “A Memoir of World War II,” September 2004, Lundquist Papers.

26. Mark Corrinet, Interview with Donal McLaughlin, December 11, 1993, McLaughlin Papers.

27. Letter from Oliver Lundquist to William vanden Heuvel, November 5, 2003, Lundquist Papers; James S. Sutterlin, Interview with Oliver Lundquist, Transcript (UN, April 19, 1990), http://digitallibrary.un.org/record/485024.

28. Office of Strategic Services, Dumbarton Oaks Proposal, January 1945, Lundquist Papers.

29. Melva Trevor, “Visual Aid for Delegates: Conference Progress in Charts, Maps,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 27, 1945.

30. Letter from Oliver Lundquist to William vanden Heuvel, November 15, 2003, Lundquist Papers.

31. The United Nations Conference on International Organization, “Proposed Organization & Functions,” April 11, 1945, RG226 S85 Box 17 Folder 300, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), College Park, Maryland.

32. See, for example, letter from Elizabeth Armstrong to Oliver Lundquist, May 31, 1945, Lundquist Papers.

33. Mark Corrinet, Interview with Donal McLaughlin, December 11, 1993, McLaughlin Papers.

34. Perry Biddiscombe, “Branding the United Nations: The Adoption of the UN Insignia and Flag, 1941–1950,” The International History Review 42, no. 1 (January 2, 2020): 21–30.

35. Donal McLaughlin, “Design for Peace: Origin of the UN Emblem,” UN Chronicle 32, no. 3 (September 1995); Donal McLaughlin, Origin of the Emblem and Other Recollections of the 1945 UN Conference, ed. Jennifer Truran Rothwell, 1995, 4–6.

36. Mark Corrinet, Interview with Donal McLaughlin, December 11, 1993, McLaughlin Papers.

37. Alger Hiss and Oliver Lundquist, “Conference—Stage Arrangements,” March 30, 1945, Jo Mielziner Papers, Box 81, Folder 1, NYPL.

38. Oliver Lundquist, “A Memoir of World War II,” September 2004, Lundquist Papers. For a history of Dazian’s Theatricals company, see Timothy R. White, “‘A Factory for Making Plays’: Broadway’s Industrial District,” in Blue-Collar Broadway: The Craft and Industry of American Theater (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 35–63.

39. Oliver Lundquist, “A Memoir of World War II,” September 2004, Lundquist Papers.

40. Lundquist recalls Hu Barton extending an invitation to Jo Mielziner in a letter to Mary Henderson, April 22, 2001, Lundquist Papers. For the appointment contract see Office of Strategic Services, Jo Mielziner Expected Appointment, March 24, 1945, Jo Mielziner Papers, Box 81, Folder 1, NYPL.

41. For Mielziner’s work at the camouflage corps and OSS during World War II, see Mary C. Henderson and New York Public Library, Mielziner: Master of Modern Stage Design (New York: Back Stage Books, 2001), 132–35, 146–48; Sonja Dümpelmann, Flights of Imagination: Aviation, Landscape, Design (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2014), 153–207; Hanna Rose Shell, Hide and Seek: Camouflage, Photography, and the Media of Reconnaissance (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2012), 77–126.

42. Henderson and New York Public Library, Mielziner, 147–48.

43. Oliver Lundquist, scrapbook, n.d., Lundquist Papers.

44. Specifications for Covering, April 13, 1945, Jo Mielziner Papers, Box 81, Folder 1, NYPL.

45. Letter from Jo Mielziner to George Gebhardt, April 12, 1945, Jo Mielziner Papers, Box 81, Folder 1, NYPL.

46. Mielziner articulated his modern theater theory during the Ford Foundation workshop The Ideal Theater. See Jo Mielziner, The Shapes of Our Theatre, ed. C. Ray Smith (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1970), 14–40.

47. Cited in Harry W. Smith, “An Air of the Dream: Jo Mielziner, Innovation, and Influence, 1935–1955,” Journal of American Drama and Theater 5, no. 3 (Fall 1993): 53.

48. Letter from Marie to Jo Mielziner, July 28, 1945, Jo Mielziner Papers, Box 81, Folder 1, NYPL.

49. McLaughlin, Origin of the Emblem, 8.

50. “Liaison Officer’s Agenda for Signing Ceremony (To Accompany Floor Plan and Photograph),” Lundquist Papers.

51. Mark Corrinet, Interview with Donal McLaughlin, December 11, 1993, McLaughlin Papers.

52. Robert O’Brien, “San Francisco,” n.d., McLaughlin Papers.

53. Lawrence E. Davies, “Nation After Nation Sees Era of Peace in Signing Charter,” The New York Times, June 27, 1945.

54. Mark Corrinet, Interview with Donal McLaughlin, December 11, 1993, McLaughlin Papers.

55. Letter from Donal McLaughlin, May 2, 1945, McLaughlin Papers.

56. There were hundreds of local papers reporting on the San Francisco Conference, mostly through the Associated Press releases. See, for example, “United Nations Sign Charter,” Life Magazine 19, no. 2 (July 9, 1945); “World Conference Ends Fruitful Sessions,” The Times and Democrat, June 27, 1945; Associated Press, “Failure Will Betray Dead, Parley Told,” The Morning News, June 27, 1945; “Truman Sounds Keynote of Peace as Frisco Conference Ends Work,” The News and Observer, June 27, 1945; R. H. Shackford, “Nations Sign Security Pact,” The Vancouver Sun, June 26, 1945.

57. Walter Winchell, “In San Francisco,” NY Daily Mirror, April 25, 1945.

58. For the role of OSS during the Nuremberg process see Michael Salter, Nazi War Crimes, US Intelligence and Selective Prosecution at Nuremberg: Controversies Regarding the Role of the Office of Strategic Services (London: Routledge-Cavendish, 2007), 246–306; Michael Salter, US Intelligence, the Holocaust and the Nuremberg Trials: Seeking Accountability for Genocide and Cultural Plunder (Leiden: M. Nijhoff, 2009), 32–43.

59. Whitney R. Harris, Tyranny on Trial: The Evidence at Nuremberg (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1995), 4–9; Bradley F. Smith, The American Road to Nuremberg: The Documentary Record, 1944–1945 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1982), 138–39; Ferhadbegović, Lingen, and Eichenberg, “The United Nations War Crimes Commission.”

60. “Memorandum of Proposals for the Prosecution and Punishment of Certain War Criminals and Other Offenders,” April 25–30, 1945, in Smith, The American Road to Nuremberg, 169.

61. “Agreement and Charter, August 8, 1945,” in Robert H. Jackson, Report of Robert H. Jackson United States Representative to the International Conference on Military Trials (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1949), 420–28.

62. Salter, Nazi War Crimes, 255–56.

63. “Minutes of Conference Session of July 13, 1945,” in Jackson, Report, 213.

64. The other cities were Berlin, Wiesbaden, Munich, Leipzig, and Luxemburg. See Gordon Dean, “Memorandum for the Chief of Counsel: The Site of the Trial,” June 26, 1945, RG 238, Entry PI21–51, Box 39, Folder Nuremberg-Physical Arrangements, NARA.

65. For background on the Justizpalast see Ulrich Grimm, “Kleine Chronik des Baus” and “Gebäude oder Palast für Justitia?,” in Justizpalast Nürnberg: Ein Ort der Weltgeschichte wird 100 Jahre, ed. Ewald Behrschmidt (Neustadt an der Aisch, Germany: VDS Verlagsdruckerei Schmidt, 2016), 23–44.

66. Stephen Brockmann, Nuremberg: The Imaginary Capital (Rochester, N.Y.: Camden House, 2006), 131–75.

67. Carolin Höfler and Matthias Karch, eds., MARSCHORDNUNGEN. Das Reichsparteitagsgelände in Nürnberg (Berlin: Stiftung Topographie des Terrors, 2016), 22–24.

68. For more on the labor economy behind the design of the monumental grounds, see Paul B. Jaskot, The Architecture of Oppression: The SS, Forced Labor and the Nazi Monumental Building Economy (London: Routledge, 2000), 47–79; Martin Kitchen, Speer: Hitler’s Architect (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 29–56.

69. “Oeil pour oeil” was initially published in French as Simone de Beauvoir, “Oeil pour oeil,” Les temps modernes 5 (February 1946), 813–830. The English translation I use is from Philosophical Writings, ed. Margaret Simons, Marybeth Timmerman, and Mary Beth Mader (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 237–60.

70. For an analysis of de Beauvoir’s phenomenology of revenge, see Sonia Kruks, Simone de Beauvoir and the Politics of Ambiguity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 151–81.

71. Primo Levi, The Drowned and the Saved (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017), 154.

72. Assistant Secretary of War, “War Crimes Prosecutions: Planning Memorandum,” May 17, 1945, RG 226, Entry 85, Box 42, File 687, NARA.

73. Christian Delage, “The Nuremberg Trials: Confronting the Nazis with the Images of Their Crimes,” in Images of Conviction: The Construction of Visual Evidence, ed. Diane Dufour et al. (Paris: Editions Xavier Barral, 2015), 133–48; Christian Delage, La verité par l’image: de Nuremberg au procès Milosevic (Paris: Denoël, 2006), 91–158.

74. On the history of the visual presentations put together for the Nuremberg Trials see Christian Delage, “L’image Comme Preuve: L’expérience Du Procès de Nuremberg,” Vingtième siècle. Revue d’histoire 72 (December 2001): 63–78; Katz, “The Arts of War,” 17–19; Salter, Nazi War Crimes, 11–42, 162–64, 513–15.

75. Jennifer L. Mnookin, “The Image of Truth: Photographic Evidence and the Power of Analogy,” in Dufour et al., Images of Conviction, 14; Susan Schuppli, Material Witness: Media, Forensics, Evidence (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2020).

76. Alejandra Azuero-Quijano, “Making the ‘World Spectacle Trial’: Design as Forensic Practice at the Nuremberg Trials,” Grey Room, no. 82 (February 1, 2021): 66.

77. My account of his life and work is based on Dan Kiley, Dan Kiley: the Complete Works of America’s Master Landscape Architect (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1999); Dan Kiley, Dan Kiley in His Own Words: America’s Master Landscape Architect (London: Thames and Hudson, 1999); and Calvin Thomkins, “The Garden Artist,” The New Yorker, October 16, 1995.

78. Daniel Donovan, “The Hundred Gardens: The Social, Historical, and Design Contexts of Hollin Hills,” in Daniel Urban Kiley: The Early Gardens, ed. William Saunders (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 40.

79. Pearlman argues that the creation of the Graduate School of Design introduced discussions of “total design” in the U.S. scene. See Jill E. Pearlman, Inventing American Modernism: Joseph Hudnut, Walter Gropius, and the Bauhaus Legacy at Harvard (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007), 50–84.

80. Garret Eckbo, Dan Kiley, and James C. Rose, “Landscape Design in the Urban Environment,” Architectural Record 85, no. 5 (May 1939): 74.

81. Eckbo, Kiley, and Rose, “Landscape Design in the Urban Environment,” 77.

82. Mark Pendergrast, “Trial and Error: Mark Pendergrast Interviewed Dan Kiley in His Office on a Dirt Road in Charlotte,” North by Northeast, c. July 1988, McLaughlin Papers.

83. Bruce M. Stave and Michele Palmer, eds., Witnesses to Nuremberg (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1998), 20.

84. Daniel Kiley, “Architect of Palace of Justice Renovations,” in Stave and Palmer, Witnesses to Nuremberg, 15.

85. Costas Douzinas and Lynda Nead, “Introduction,” in Law and the Image: The Authority of Art and the Aesthetics of Law, ed. Costas Douzinas and Lynda Nead (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 1–18; Peter Goodrich, Legal Emblems and the Art of Law: Obiter Depicta as the Vision of Governance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 23–48; Desmond Manderson, Songs without Music: Aesthetic Dimensions of Law and Justice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 40–43.

86. For more on the aesthetic dimensions of law, particularly in relationship to space, see Manderson, Songs without Music, 40–43.

87. Piyel Haldar, “In and Out of Court: On Topographies of Law and the Architecture of Court Buildings,” International Journal for the Semiotics of Law/Revue internationale de Semiotique juridique 7, no. 2 (1994): 185–200.

88. Linda Mulcahy, Legal Architecture: Justice, Due Process and the Place of Law (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2011), 14–37; Katherine Fischer Taylor, “Geometries of Power: Royal, Revolutionary, and Postrevolutionary French Courtrooms,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 72, no. 4 (2013): 434–74; Katherine Fischer Taylor, In the Theater of Criminal Justice: The Palais de Justice in Second Empire Paris (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).

89. Taylor makes an excellent case with the post-Revolutionary French palace of justice in In the Theater of Criminal Justice, xvii–xviii.

90. Katz, “The Arts of War,” 18–19; Salter, US Intelligence, the Holocaust and the Nuremberg Trials, 253–54; Azuero-Quijano, “Making the ‘World Spectacle Trial.’”

91. Cornelia Vismann, Medien Der Rechtsprechung (Berlin: Fischer Taschenbuch, 2011), 146–83. On transitional trials and the difference between tribunals and courts, see Kim Christian Priemel, The Betrayal: The Nuremberg Trials and German Divergence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 1–20.

92. Jean-Louis Cohen, Architecture in Uniform: Designing and Building for the Second World War (Montréal: Canadian Centre for Architecture, distributed by Yale University Press, 2011), 386.

93. Beatriz Colomina, “Enclosed by Images: The Eameses’ Multimedia Architecture,” Grey Room, no. 2 (2001): 7–29.

94. Presentation History, January 15, 1945, RG226, Entry 99, Box 98, Folder 7, NARA.

95. Outline Agenda of State Department Meeting on the Presentation Room Proposals, January 30, 1945, RG226, Entry 85, Box 25, Folder 413, NARA.

96. “V. Visual Presentation and Field Photographic: The Rise and Fall of Q-2,” RG226, Entry 99, Box 136, Folder 2, NARA. For a more detailed history of situation rooms, see Katz, “The Arts of War,” 5–7; Colomina, “Enclosed by Images”; and Cohen, Architecture in Uniform, 322–25.

97. Office of Strategic Services, Some Facts about the Presentation Room in the Combined Chiefs of Staff Building (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1943), 4–6.

98. Neither the sketch nor the letter identifies the architect. Examining the detail and drawing technique in comparison to Kiley’s sketches, I speculate that the sketch’s architect was not Kiley, but somebody with experience on situation rooms. See Gordon Dean, “Memorandum to the Chief of Counsel,” July 17, 1945, RG238, Entry PI21–51, Box 39, NARA.

99. William J. Donovan to Chief of Counsel, “Lt. Dean’s Memorandum on The Site of the Trial,” June 28, 1945, RG 238, Entry PI21–51, Box 39, Folder Nuremberg-Physical Arrangements, NARA.

100. Kiley, “Architect of Palace of Justice Renovations,” 21.

101. Robert H. Jackson, “Memorandum to US Chief of Counsel,” October 5, 1945, RG 238, Entry PI21–51, Box 39, Folder Nuremberg-Physical Arrangements, NARA.

102. Colonel Robert J. Gill, “Memorandum for the Chief of Counsel: The Site of the Trial,” June 26, 1945, RG 238, Entry PI21–51, Box 39, Folder Nuremberg-Physical Arrangements, NARA.

103. The annex initially served as a Jury Court, a briefly active court in the German judicial system.

104. Robert B. Konikow, “The Trials at Nürnberg,” unpublished manuscript, McLaughlin Papers.

105. On the systemic presentation of international law in the Nuremberg Trials see Azuero-Quijano, “Making the ‘World Spectacle Trial.’”

106. Olga Touloumi, “Building the Case for the Nuremberg Trials [70 Years After Nuremberg],” Human Rights Archives (blog), November 18, 2015, https://blogs.lib.uconn.edu/humanrights/2015/11/18/building-the-case-for-the-nuremberg-trials-70-years-after-nuremberg; Olga Touloumi, “Architectures of Global Communication: Psychoacoustics, Acoustic Space, and the Total Environment, 1941–1970” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2014), 57–62.

107. Mark Somos, “A New Architecture of Justice: Dan Kiley’s Design for the Nuremberg Trials’ Courtroom,” MPIL Research Paper Series, no. 4 (2018): 1–27.

108. Manderson, Songs without Music, 43.

109. “Presentation Branch Work on War Crimes Project,” June 14, 1945, RG 226, Box 42, Folder 688, NARA.

110. Harris, Tyranny on Trial, 26; Stave and Palmer, Witnesses to Nuremberg, 1998.

111. Salter, Nazi War Crimes, 255–77.

112. See, for example, Vladimír Rýpar and Karel Hájek, Norimberk: zločin a soud (Praha: Světa obrazech, s.s.r.o., vydavatelstva ministerstva informací, 1946).

113. Nuremberg: Its Lesson for Today (New York: Schulberg Productions and New Day Films, 2014).

114. This is an argument most notably made by James E. K. Parker on the need to address the acoustic component—testimonies, interpretation, oaths, to name a few—within adjudication. See Acoustic Jurisprudence: Listening to the Trial of Simon Bikindi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 1–44.

115. Mladen Dolar, A Voice and Nothing More (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 108–9.

116. Parker, Acoustic Jurisprudence, 139–40.

117. Margareta Bowen, “Interpreting at the League of Nations,” in Report of the Thirteenth Annual Conference of the Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems in Cooperation with the Office of Conference Services, ed. Humphrey Tonkin (Hartford: Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems, 1996); Margareta Bowen, “Interpreters and the Making of History,” in Translators Through History, ed. Jean Delisle and Judith Woodsworth (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1995), 245–73; Wolfram Wilss, Translation and Interpretation in the 20th Century: Focus on German (Amsterdam: J. Benjamins, 1999), 32–36.

118. Robert Lansing, The Big Four and Others of the Peace Conference (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1921), 106.

119. Arthur Herbert Birse, Memoirs of an Interpreter (London: Joseph, 1967), 106.

120. Jean Herbert, “How Conference Interpretation Grew,” in Language Interpretation and Communication, ed. NATO Symposium on Language Interpretation and Communication et al. (New York: Plenum Press, 1978), 7.

121. Laura Kunreuther, “Earwitnesses and Transparent Conduits of Voice: On the Labor of Field Interpreters for UN Missions,” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 11, no. 3 (Winter 2020): 298–316.

122. “Rules of Procedure,” in The United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, California, April 25 to June 26, 1945. Selected Documents (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1946), 75–76.

123. Jesús Baigorri-Jalón, From Paris to Nuremberg: The Birth of Conference Interpreting, trans. Holly Mikkelson and Barry Slaughter Olsen (Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2014), 131–64.

124. The first installation of the system, or “the Filene Experiment,” as ILO administrators referred to it, kept interpreters in the public eye, close to the speaker’s podium. ILO delegates embraced simultaneous interpretation for accelerating their meetings. The enthusiastic reception among ILO delegates encouraged Filene to reach out again to the League of Nations Secretary-General in 1930, offering to finance the installation of his Filene-Finlay Translator inside the Assembly Hall at Palais Wilson, but it was only after 1931 that the League allowed Filene to install his system and wire delegates with telephone lines into a single communication network. Filene turned to telecommunications experts at AT&T to build a more extensive and robust version of his system, but after his proposal was turned down, he approached Thomas Watson of IBM, whom he had met in the International Chamber of Commerce. Watson, seeing the Filene-Finlay system as another opportunity to tie his company to the international market, acquired the patent and agreed to develop and install the system at the Palais des Nations, an agreement that lasted up to 1949, when the Filene-Finlay patent expired and IBM dropped Filene’s name from the nameplates of the selector switches. See “Le système Filene-Finlay de traduction téléphonique des discours,” undated pamphlet, R3427, League of Nations Archives (LON), United Nations Office in Geneva (UNOG), Geneva, Switzerland; letter from Edward Filene to Chairman, League of Nations Council, September 14, 1929. R3427, LON; Bowen, “Interpreting at the League of Nations”; Egon Ferdinand Ranshofen-Wertheimer, The International Secretariat: A Great Experiment in International Administration (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1945), 139–41; Wilss, Translation and Interpretation in the 20th Century, 30–49; Herbert, “How Conference Interpretation Grew,” 5–10; A. C. Holt, “International Understanding: A Tribute to Mr. Thomas J. Watson,” 1954, Box 1, Folder 19, IBM Archives. For a short account of the negotiations among the two U.S. businessman and the British engineer that resulted in the creation of the Filene-Finlay translator see George E. Berkley, The Filenes (Boston: International Pocket Library, 1998), 202–5.

125. Ranshofen-Wertheimer, The International Secretariat, 140.

126. Baigorri-Jalón, From Paris to Nuremberg, 161–62.

127. George Slocombe and Emery Kelen, A Mirror to Geneva (London: J. Cape, 1937), 63.

128. Preliminary Notes on Peace Conference—Interpreting & Translating, RG 226, Entry 85, Box 17, Folder 300, NARA.

129. Groff Conklin, “Preliminary Action Report to H. C. Barton, Jr.,” April 19, 1944, RG 226, Entry 85, Box 17, Folder 300, NARA.

130. “Le système Filene-Finlay de traduction téléphonique des discours,” undated pamphlet, R3427, LON.

131. “THAT ALL MEN MAY UNDERSTAND—Each in His Own Tongue—with the INTERNATIONAL TRANSLATOR SYSTEM,” n.d., IBM Documents, Box 2 Folder 6, IBM Archives.

132. This is an argument more distinctly made by Parker, Acoustic Jurisprudence, 9.

133. Jonathan Sterne, The Audible Past: Cultural Origins of Sound Reproduction (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 163–65.

134. I take the term “collectivized isolation” from Jonathan Sterne, “Headset Culture, Audile, Technique, and Sound Space as Private Space,” TMG Journal for Media History 6, no. 2 (September 17, 2014): 57–82.

135. James Parker, “The Soundscape of Justice,” Griffith Law Review 20, no. 4 (2011): 973.

136. Joseph Kessel, L’Heure des châtiments, as cited in Delage, “The Nuremberg Trials,” in Dufour et al., Images of Conviction, 133, 148.

137. Rebecca West, “Extraordinary Exile,” The New Yorker, September 7, 1946.

138. Colonel Robert J. Gill, “Memorandum to US Chief of Counsel,” October 5, 1945, RG 238, Entry PI21–51, Box 39, Folder Nuremberg-Physical Arrangements, NARA.

139. Jackson is cited in Gaiba, The Origins of Simultaneous Interpretation, 34. Gaiba suggests that Colonel Léon Dostert, who was Eisenhower’s interpreter, proposed the use of the IBM system, since Justice Jackson, who was arranging for the trial in Europe, was in communication with Dostert, who was at the time in Washington. For research that attributes to Jackson the import of the IBM system see Leo Kahn, Nuremberg Trials (New York: Ballantine, 1972); and Robert E. Conot, Justice at Nuremberg (New York: Harper, 1983).

140. “The International Filene Finlay Translator System,” 1946, IBM Documents, Box 2, Folder 6, IBM Archives.

141. Kayoko Takeda, Interpreting the Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2010), 32–38.

142. A. C. Holt, “Memorandum to Mr. L. H. LaMotte: Wireless Translator,” November 27, 1953, L. H. LaMotte Papers, Box 40, Folder 3, IBM Archives.

143. A. C. Holt, “International Understanding: A Tribute to Mr. Thomas J. Watson,” 1954, Box 1, Folder 19, IBM Archives.

144. Kunreuther makes this argument in “Earwitnesses and Transparent Conduits of Voice.”

145. Letter from Edward R. Stettinius Jr. to Bill Donovan, July 24, 1945; letter from Edward R. Stettinius Jr. to Oliver Lundquist, June 6, 1946; and letter from Wallace K. Harrison to Oliver Lundquist, October 22, 1947, Lundquist Papers.

146. Lundquist disagrees with Donal McLaughlin’s account, claiming the work to be a collaborative effort. See letter from Oliver Lundquist to Stephen C. Schlesinger, November 23, 2003, Lundquist Papers. For the reference to the Rand McNally map see Donal McLaughlin, “Origin of the United Nations Seal” Draft, McLaughlin Papers; and Peter Kihas, “New Emblem for UN Drawn—A Global One,” New York Herald Tribune, November 20, 1946.

147. Harris, Tyranny on Trial, 537.

1. Trygve Lie, In the Cause of Peace: Seven Years with the United Nations (New York: Macmillan, 1954), 57.

2. For a detailed analysis of the regionalist and globalist imperative in Roosevelt’s political geography, see Neil Smith, American Empire: Roosevelt’s Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 374–415.

3. Sumner Welles, Where Are We Heading? (New York: Harper, 1946), 31–32.

4. Robert C. Hilderbrand, Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 36, 106–7.

5. For example, see letter from Mabel Morris, December 2, 1945, S-0539-0004-16, United Nations Archives and Records Management (UN), New York.

6. The Preparatory Commission announced the “principle of centralisation” in a press release, “Permanent Headquarters of the United Nations: Discussion on Selection of Seat,” September 29, 1945, S-0930-0003-02, UN.

7. Committee 10, “A Study of the Recruitments for the Location of the Headquarters of the United Nations and its Specialized Organisations,” September 10, 1945, S-0930-0006-02, UN.

8. For a short history of the Royal Institute of International Affairs, see Laurence Martin, “Chatham House at 75: The Past and the Future,” International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) 71, no. 4 (1995): 697–703; Edward Carrington Cabell and Mary Bone, Chatham House: Its History and Inhabitants (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2004).

9. James Eric Drummond et al., The International Secretariat of the Future: Lessons from Experience by a Group of Former Officials of the League of Nations (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1944), 11–16.

10. Drummond et al., The International Secretariat of the Future, 47–49, 61–64.

11. “Former Directors General: Clarence Wilfred Jenks,” International Labor Organization, February 8, 2006, http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/how-the-ilo-works/ilo-director-general/former-directors-general/WCMS_192713/lang--en/index.htm.

12. C. Wilfred Jenks, The Headquarters of International Institutions (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1945).

13. Jenks, The Headquarters of International Institutions, 10–11.

14. Jenks, The Headquarters of International Institutions, 17.

15. Jenks, The Headquarters of International Institutions, 25–27.

16. “Eleventh Meeting of Committee 8 (General Questions) of the Preparatory Commission of the United States,” December 13, 1945, S-0931-0004-01, UN.

17. Summary Report of the Sixth Meeting of Committee 10, December 11, 1945, S-0930-0006-02, UN.

18. Summary Report of the Sixth Meeting of Committee 10, December 11, 1945, S-0930-0006-02, UN.

19. Committee 8: General Questions, “Summary Record of Meetings,” No. 3, November 30, 1945, S-0532-0001-04, UN.

20. Committee 8: General Questions, “Summary Record of Meetings,” No. 11, December 15, 1945, S-0532-0001-04, UN.

21. Committee 8: General Questions, “Summary Record of Meetings,” No. 7a, December 11, 1945, S-0532-0001-04, UN.

22. Press Release No. 95, “Second Day of Discussion on Permanent Headquarters of the United Nations, Committee 8: General Questions,” December 8, 1945, S-0930-0003-02, UN.

23. Committee 8: General Questions, “Summary Record of Meetings,” No. 9, December 12, 1945, S-0532-0001-04, UN.

24. “Twelfth Meeting of Committee 8 (General Purposes) of the Preparatory Commission of the United Nations,” December 14, 1945, S-0931-0004-01, UN.

25. The discussion on the procedure started on December 7, 1945. See Committee 8: General Questions, “Summary Record of Meetings,” No. 7, December 8, 1945, and No. 20, December 24, 1945, S-0532-0001-04, UN.

26. Committee 8: General Questions, “Summary Record of Meetings,” No. 9, December 18, 1945, S-0532-0001-04, UN.

27. Press Release, Technical Advisory Committee on Information, December 8, 1945, S-0930-0003-02, UN.

28. Charlene Mires offers an excellent account of the selection of the UN site and the events leading up to the purchase of the plot on Turtle Bay in Capital of the World: The Race to Host the United Nations (New York: New York University Press, 2015).

29. Letter from Ben P. Choate to President Harry S. Truman, October 6, 1945, S-0539-0004-16, UN.

30. The proposal submitted was initially published in the Periodicum Mundaneum, No. 50, April 1945. See “Memorandum on Sites Already Formally Proposed for the Headquarters of the United Nations Organisation Submitted by Committee 10,” September 12, 1945, S-0930-0006-02, UN.

31. Sub-Committee No. 10—proposed sites for United Nations Headquarters A-L, S-0539-0004-15, UN.

32. Letter from James J. Lyons to Preparatory Commission, December 14, 1945, S-0539-0004-16, UN.

33. Letter from Mildred Webster to United Nations Organization, January 7, 1946, S-0532-0003-11, UN.

34. Resolution adopted by the American Institute of Architects, American Institute of Planners, American Society of Landscape Architects, and American Society of Civil Engineers, March 2, 1946, S-0472-0004-01, UN.

35. “The Capitol of the World,” Interiors 105 (1946): 76–77; Kenneth Reid, “A Home for the U.N.O.,” Progressive Architecture 27 (1946): 98–100; Ed Allen, “Capital for the United Nations,” Architectural Record 99 (March 1946): 82–85; “United Nations Headquarters: New York Site Suggested,” Architects’ Journal 104 (November 14, 1946): 349–50; “Proposed United Nations Center,” Architectural Forum 82 (August 1945): 98–101; “New York Proposes a World Capitol for the United Nations,” Architectural Forum 85 (1946): 116–20; “Statement on the Report of the Headquarters Commission by the Joint Advisory Committee on Planning and Development of the United Nations Headquarters,” American Institute of Planners 12 (October 1946): 27–30; Thomas H. Locraft, “A Capital for the U.N.O.,” Journal of the American Institute of Architects 5 (April 1946): 178–84; “La casa dei popoli il concorso dell O.N.U.,” Domus 207 (March 1946): 2–5; Frederick P. Clark, “Planning a World Headquarters,” American Institute of Planners 12 (April 1946): 10–15.

36. For a conversation of the British delegation and Australian delegation memorandums in particular, see Mires, Capital of the World, 124–30.

37. Memorandum, January 11, 1946, S-0532-0002-03, UN.

38. New York City Mayor’s Committee on Plan and Scope, Plan for Permanent World Capitol at Flushing Meadows Park, September 1946, Box 04, Ralph Walker Papers (Walker Papers), Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York.

39. The abbreviated version of the lecture “A World Center for the United Nations” was published in Progressive Architecture 27 (August 1946): 70–72; Architects’ Journal 104 (July 25, 1946): 37–39, 70; and Builder 171 (July 19, 1946): 57–58. Convinced of the effects that the new global institution would have on the city, Mumford continued his public criticism through his column in the New Yorker, well after all committees formed and architects were chosen. Lawrence J. Vale offers an overview of Mumford’s reaction and continuous engagement with the construction of the UN in “Designing Global Harmony: Lewis Mumford and the United Nations Headquarters,” in Lewis Mumford: Public Intellectual, ed. Thomas P. Hughes and Agatha C. Hughes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 256–82.

40. Lewis Mumford, “Memorandum on the United Nations Organization Headquarter and Community,” n.d., S-0532-0005-07, UN.

41. Mumford, “Memorandum on the United Nations.”

42. Mumford, “Memorandum on the United Nations.”

43. Mumford, “Memorandum on the United Nations.”

44. Letter from R. S. Childs to Lewis Mumford, January 21, 1946, S-0532-0005-07, UN. Some of his Skyline essays critical of the UN building have been republished in Lewis Mumford, From The Ground Up: Observations on Contemporary Architecture, Housing, Highway Building, and Civic Design (Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1956).

45. Verbatim Minutes of the Closing Plenary Session, Opera House, June 26, 1945, S-0537-0074-01, UN.

46. Verbatim Minutes of the Opening Session, Opera House, April 25, 1945, S-0537-0074-01, UN.

47. A. H. Feller, United Nations and World Community (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953), 30.

48. For a history of the emergence of corporate form in the late nineteenth-century United States, see Charles Perrow, Organizing America: Wealth, Power, and the Origins of Corporate Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002).

49. Reinhold Martin, The Organizational Complex: Architecture, Media, and Corporate Space (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), 80–121.

50. “Headquarters, n.,” in OED Online (Oxford University Press), accessed October 10, 2019, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/84964.

51. Letter from Le Corbusier to Trygve Lie, July 9, 1946, S-0186-0001-09, UN.

52. Le Corbusier, “Report,” June 19, 1946, S-0532-0008-09, UN. Le Corbusier’s report was later published as Annex I to the Headquarters Commission’s report. See Report of the Headquarters Commission to the Second Part of the First Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations (Lake Success, N.Y.: United Nations, 1946), 19–39. Le Corbusier later published the report as a book; see Le Corbusier, UN Headquarters: Practical Application of a Philosophy of the Domain of Building (New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1947).

53. Le Corbusier, “Report.”

54. Le Corbusier, “Report.”

55. Le Corbusier, “Report.”

56. Report by M. Le Corbusier, Observations by Sir Angus Fletcher, August 16, 1946, and Critique of Le Corbusier’s June 19th Report, August 13, 1946, S-0532-0008-09, UN.

57. Memorandum from Awni Khalidy to Sir Angus Fletcher, “Meeting of the Negotiations Committee in Washington,” June 25, 1946, S-0532-0007-03, UN.

58. Victoria Newhouse, Wallace K. Harrison, Architect (New York: Rizzoli, 1989), 3–25.

59. Newhouse, Wallace K. Harrison.

60. Committee 8: General Questions, “Summary Record of Meetings,” December 22, 1945, S-0532-0001-04, UN.

61. A sample checklist is “Site Check List Assumptions,” July 18, 1946, S-0532-0007-08, UN.

62. “Report and Recommendations of the Inspection Group on Selecting the Permanent Site and Interim Facilities for the Headquarters of the United Nations,” February 4, 1946, S-0532-0001-07, UN.

63. Draft Resolution—Harrison (White Plains) Site, December 8, 1946, S-0532-0006-05, UN.

64. This argument has most notably been made by Samuel Zipp, who claims that the final selection was motivated by Rockefeller’s interest in keeping the headquarters close to his estate. See Samuel Zipp, Manhattan Projects: The Rise and Fall of Urban Renewal in Cold War New York (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 33-72.

65. Lie, In the Cause of Peace, 115.

66. Conversations on the Interim Facilities can be found in the minutes of the Inspection Group, S-0532-0002-03, UN.

67. “A Comparison of the Facilities at Hunter College in the Bronx and the Sperry Gyroscope Plant at Lake Success for the Interim Headquarters for the United Nations,” April 8, 1946, S-0186-0001-19, UN.

68. Minutes of the Meeting of the Inspection Group, January 25, 1946, S-0532-0002-03, UN.

69. For correspondence on the negotiations around the leasing of Hunter College see Mayor William O’Dwyer Records, Series II, Box 164, Folder 1773, Municipal Archives, New York, New York. The sites at Flushing Meadows and Lake Success were confirmed by mid-April 1946. See letter from Trygve Lie to Mayor O’Dwyer, April 11, 1946, Mayor William O’Dwyer Records, Series II, Box 164, Folder 1774, The New York City Municipal Archives, New York.

70. Jean-Claude Pallas, Histoire et architecture du Palais des Nations (1924–2001): l’art déco au service des relations internationales (Geneva: Nations Unies, 2001), 89–113.

71. Correspondence with requests can be found in folder S-0472-0001-12, UN.

72. This was the case with the Swedish nomination, as Ragnar Hjorth was replaced by Sven Markelius, and the Greek one, as Kouremenos was replaced with Le Corbusier’s collaborator Stamos Papadakis, who then was replaced by Jean Antoniades. Correspondence with individual member states can be found in S-0472–0003, UN.

73. After correspondence with Secretary-General Trygve Lie, Wallace K. Harrison confirmed that his Board of Design would include Nikolai D. Bassov from the USSR, Gaston Brunfaut from Belgium, Le Corbusier from France, Ernest Cormier from Canada, Liang Ssu-ch’eng (Sicheng) from China, Sven Markelius from Sweden, Oscar Niemeyer from Brazil, Howard M. Robertson from the United Kingdom, G. A. Soilleux from Australia, and Julio Vilamajó Echaniz from Uruguay, with the addition of collaborators, such as Vladimir Bodiansky, Hugh Ferriss, and Ernest Weissmann, forming a group of special consultants. The board also consulted representatives of three major architecture firms with experience in large-scale construction projects in the United States: Louis Skidmore of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM), Gilmore D. Clarke of Clarke, Rapuano & Holleran, and Ralph Walker of Voorhees, Walker, Foley & Smith. They also called in consulting engineers for technical questions on mechanical and electrical issues. See Ad Hoc Committee on Headquarters, “Second Meeting: Resume of Remarks Made by the Director of Planning,” September 26, 1947, Max Abramovitz Architectural Records and Papers, 1925–1990, Box 15, Folder 5, Avery.

74. George Dudley, Minutes of Meeting, January 8, 1947. Wallace K. Harrison Architectural Drawings and Papers, 1913–1986, Box 8, Folder 4, Avery.

75. Hugh Ferriss, “Designing the United Nations Headquarters,” Royal Architectural Institute of Canada Journal 25 (1948): 69–80.

76. George A. Dudley, A Workshop for Peace: Designing the United Nations Headquarters (Cambridge: The Architectural History Foundation, MIT Press, 1994), 66–67.

77. The list of requirements was based on the guidelines created by the Committee on Requirements and the questionnaire that de Ranitz had put together. After an initially more robust plan for collection of information fell through, the questionnaire was answered with informed “guesses” by Adriaan Pelt, the Assistant Secretary-General for Conferences and General Services, and J. B. Hutson, the Assistant Secretary-General for Administrative and Financial Services. See Annex No. 4 Headquarters Commission, Summary of the Requirements of the United Nations Based on the Replies from the Secretariat to the Questionnaire of the Headquarters Commission, S-0532-0012-01, UN. For the basic requirements see UN Planning Office, “Basic Requirements for U.N. Headquarters,” February 17, 1947, UN.

78. Report of the Headquarters Commission to the Second Part of the First Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations, October 1946, S-0532-0012-12, UN.

79. Ralph Walker, “Aesthetics of the U.N. Headquarters,” 1947, Box 16, Walker Papers.

80. Using his personal notes as a source, George Dudley offers one of the most thorough accounts we have of the events inside the Board of Design and from the perspective of Wallace K. Harrison in A Workshop for Peace.

81. 1946. The Early Days of the U.N. Inspire an International Legacy at Lehman College (Bronx: Lehman College of Media Relations and Publications, 2008).

82. Design Meeting, March 17, 1947 Box 10, George A. Dudley Papers (Dudley Papers), Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.

83. Headquarters Planning Office, “Investigation of Space Requirements,” July 24, 1947, 001-2011-361 T, Box 2, Ernest Cormier fonds, Canadian Centre for Architecture (CCA), Montreal, Canada.

84. Material Requirements of the United Nations, n.d., S-0186-0001-02, UN.

85. Soilleux, Shortwave Broadcast to Australia—UN Radio, June 4, 1947, S-0542-0043-33, UN.

86. “Ogdensburger’s Brother: Helped Change Skyline; Cormier Noted Architect,” Ogdensburg News, December 21, 1952. 001-2011-361 T, Box 2, Ernest Cormier fonds, CCA.

87. Headquarters Planning Office, Declaration, April 18, 1947, 001-2011-361 T, Box 2, Ernest Cormier fonds, CCA.

88. Design Meeting, February 21, 1947 Box 10, Dudley Papers.

89. Jan Molema provides a full account of the episode from the perspective of the archives in the Netherlands and the Fondation Le Corbusier; see “Unknown History: Le Corbusier in Front of the ‘Academism’ of Jan de Ranitz in the Preparations for the United Nations Headquarters at New York,” Forma y Construcción En Arquitectura 8 (May 2013): 18–27.

90. Dudley, A Workshop for Peace, 204–6.

91. Ralph Walker, “The Architect and the Post-War World: Paper given at fifty-sixth annual meeting of the Ontario Association of Architects,” January 26, 1946, Box 8, Walker Papers.

92. Ralph Walker, “The Architect as a Liberal,” February 28, 1940, Box 2, Walker Papers.

93. Gertrude Samuels, “What Kind of Capitol for the U.N.?,” New York Times, April 20, 1947.

94. Design Meeting, April 18, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

95. Headquarters of the United Nations, Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Headquarters, Rapporteur: Alexis Kyrou (Greece), A/485 November 18, 1947, UN.

96. “Ogdensburger’s Brother.”

97. Ad Hoc Committee on Headquarters, “Second Meeting: Resume of Remarks Made by the Director of Planning,” September 26, 1947, Max Abramovic Collection, Box 15, Folder 5, Avery.

98. G. A. Soilleux, “The Planning of the United Nations Headquarters: A Paper Read before the A.A. by Mr. G. A. Soilleux, F.R.A.I.A.,” The Architectural Association Journal 63 (1948): 198–99.

99. Pencil notes on minutes for Design Meeting, February 24, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

100. Design Meeting, February 27, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

101. Report to the General Assembly of the United Nations on the Permanent Headquarters of the United Nations, 3.

102. Report to the General Assembly of the United Nations on the Permanent Headquarters of the United Nations, 27.

103. Letter from J. D. Fuller to Frank Begley, June 4, 1947, S-0472-0001-14, UN.

104. Report to the General Assembly of the United Nations on the Permanent Headquarters of the United Nations, 34.

105. Design Meeting, March 18, 1947, Dudley Papers.

106. Letter to Mrs. Barlow, October 23, 1946, S-0925-0007-09, UN.

107. Here I am alluding to Ella Myers, who introduces the term “worldly things” to propose new models of democratic participation and mobilization around a care for “the world as a world” rather than a care for the self (Foucault) or a care for the Other (Levinas). See in particular Worldly Ethics: Democratic Politics and Care for the World (Durham: Duke University Press, 2013), 85–110.

108. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 52.

109. See for example: Philosophy and Religion in Their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life Conference on Science et al., eds., Approaches to World Peace: Fourth Symposium (New York: Harper, 1944); Philosophy and Religion in Their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life Conference on Science and Lyman Bryson, eds., Learning and World Peace: Eighth Symposium (New York: Conference on Science, Philosophy and Religion in their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life, 1948).

110. UNESCO’s Tensions Project is an example: Hadley Cantril, Tensions That Cause Wars: Common Statement and Individual Papers by a Group of Social Scientists Brought Together by UNESCO (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1950).

111. For a discussion of the “technical turn” and the UNESCO headquarters see Lucia Allais, “Architecture and Mediocracy at UNESCO House,” in Marcel Breuer: Building Global Institutions, ed. Barry Bergdoll and Jonathan Massey (Zurich: Lars Müller Publishers, 2018), 81–115.

112. George Bernard de Huszar, Practical Applications of Democracy (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1945). On de Huszar see Marguerite De Huszar Allen, “Living Dangerously: George de Huszar,” Chicago Review 45, no. 3/4 (1999): 136–50.

113. Mark Corrinet, Interview with Donal McLaughlin, December 11, 1993, McLaughlin Papers.

114. Wallace K. Harrison, “Talk Made by W. K. Harrison before the American Society of Landscape Architects, Hotel Baltimore, New York,” June 9, 1947. He gave the same talk on November 19, 1947 at the Joint Meeting of Detroit Charter of the AIA and Engineering Society, Detroit; on December 7, 1948 at the Meeting of the Boston Society of Architects, Boston; and at the Joint Meeting of Cleveland Charter of the AIA Cleveland, Ohio, on April 27, 1949, Wallace K. Harrison, Collection II, Box 3, Folder 3, Avery.

115. Jean Ferriss WBOW Broadcast, March 28, 1946. Includes excerpts from interview with Ralph Walker, Box 16, Walker Papers.

116. Design Meeting, February 28, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

117. Cited in Dudley, A Workshop for Peace, 151.

118. Design Meeting, February 26, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

119. Most prominently in the extensive criticism of the three interiors that Olga Gueft offered in “An Unodious Comparison: The Three Council Chambers of the United Nations,” Interiors 111 (July 1952): 46–67.

120. Design Meeting, March 18, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

121. Quote found in Dudley, A Workshop for Peace, 138.

122. Barry Katz, “The Arts of War: ‘Visual Presentation’ and National Intelligence,” Design Issues 12, no. 2 (1996): 3–21.

123. Design Meeting, April 21, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

124. On the history of the Security Council and the asymmetries that produced it, see David L. Bosco, Five to Rule Them All: The UN Security Council and the Making of the Modern World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).

125. Dudley, A Workshop for Peace, 56, 66.

126. Design Meeting, March 14, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

127. Isobel Roele, “Around Arendt’s Table: Bureaucracy and the Non-Permanent Members of the UN Security Council,” Leiden Journal of International Law 31, no. 3 (2020).

128. For an in-depth discussion of the Security Council chamber see Bosco, Five to Rule Them All, 10–79.

129. Ingeborg Glambek, “The Council Chambers in the UN Building in New York,” Scandinavian Journal of Design History 15 (2005): 8–39; Alexa Griffith Winton, “A Striking Juxtaposition: Hand-Woven Textiles in the United Nations Conference Building Interiors,” The Journal of Modern Craft 8, no. 2 (May 4, 2015): 181–93; Lili Blumenau, “Textiles in the United Nations Buildings,” Handweaver & Craftsman 4 (Winter 1952/53): 10–14.

130. Karsten R. S. Ifversen, Birgit Lyngbye Pedersen, and Finn Juhl, Finn Juhl at the UN: A Living Legacy (Copenhagen: Strandberg Publishing, 2013), 73.

131. According to a biographical note, Abel Sorensen arrived in the United States in 1938 and worked for Oscar Stonorov and Louis Kahn, later designing for Knoll. See Acquisition Musee des arts decoratifs de Montréal, Oliver Lincoln Lundquist Papers, Bard College, New York.

132. For example, see letter from Abel R. Sorensen to Jacob Kjaer, July 6, 1950; letter from Abel R. Sorensen to A. Hertogh, July 7, 1950; letter from Abel R. Sorensen to S. Carbonier, July 7, 1950; all in S-0472-0001-12, UN.

133. Letter from Arnstein Arneberg, August 3, 1950, NAMT aar621, Box 1, Folder Korrespondanse 1950, Arnstein Arneberg Papers (Arneberg Papers), Nasjonalmuseet for kunst, arkitektur og design, Oslo, Norway.

134. For a sample letter to member states see: letter from Trygve Lie to the Minister for Foreign Affairs, Royal Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, April 20, 1950, AM 1972–10, Folder UN Manhattan, Markelius Papers, ArkDes, Stockholm, Sweden.

135. Draft letter from Trygve Lie to the Board of Art Advisers, March 1, 1950, S-0472-0044-02, UN. Letters of nomination went out to all three nominees on March 2, 1950.

136. Irwin Edman, “Statement of Some Principles Underlying the Choice of Works of Art for the United Nations Headquarters,” n.d., S-0472-0044-05, UN.

137. Report of the Board of Art Advisers to the Secretary-General after its First Session, June 5–9, 1950, S-0472-0044-05, UN.

138. For correspondence about the trip see S-0472-0044-04, UN.

139. Gueft, “An Unodious Comparison,” 49.

140. Letter from Sven Markelius to Abel Sorensen, June 25, 1952, S-0472-0030-01, UN.

141. Letter from Finn Juhl to Glenn E. Bennett, August 15, 1950, and letter from Abel Sorensen to Finn Juhl, August 23, 1950, S-0472-0029-16, UN.

142. Edgar Kaufmann Jr., “Finn Juhl on the American Scene,” manuscript, 1000:0386, Box 6, Finn Juhl Papers, Archives of Designmuseum Danmark, Copenhagen.

143. Gueft, “An Unodious Comparison.”

144. Dudley, A Workshop for Peace, 223 and Newhouse, Wallace K. Harrison, 130.

145. “Global Architect: Wallace K. Harrison,” Parade, Vol. VI, No. 24, June 15, 1947, clipping in Box 2, B01–036.6, Ernest Weissmann Papers (Weissmann Papers), Loeb, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

146. Graham Beckel and Felice Lee, Workshops for the World: The United Nations Family of Agencies (New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1954).

1. Report to the General Assembly of the United Nations by the Secretary-General on the Permanent Headquarters of the United Nations (Lake Success, N.Y.: United Nations, 1947), 27.

2. Report to the General Assembly of the United Nations, 34.

3. Syska & Hennessy Engineers, Preliminary Report on Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for the United Nations Permanent Headquarters, June 1947, 001-2011-361 T, Box 2, Ernest Cormier fonds, CCA.

4. Sokolsky is cited in Ralph Walker, “The Aesthetics of the U.N. Headquarters,” 1948, Box 1, Walker Papers. Victoria Newhouse points to the similarities between the shape of the Hall Auditorium and the UN General Assembly; see Wallace K. Harrison, Architect (New York: Rizzoli, 1989), 129–30. In his speech to the AA, Soilleux discussed how Harrison, in response to a similar building in South America, changed the elevations from curved to straight. It is unclear to me when the visit to South America took place, but see G. A. Soilleux, “The Planning of the United Nations Headquarters: A Paper Read before the A.A. by Mr. G. A. Soilleux, F.R.A.I.A.,” The Architectural Association Journal 63 (1948): 199.

5. “Summary Record of the First Meeting of the Executive Committee of the United Nations,” August 16, 1945, S-0930-0003-03, UN.

6. Letter from Groff Conklin to H. C. Barton Jr., April 19, 1944, Records of the Office of Strategic Services, RG226 S85, Box 17, Folder 300, NARA.

7. “Preliminary Notes on Peace Conference: The Press,” February 10, 1944, Records of the Office of Strategic Services, RG226 S85, Box 17, Folder, 300, NARA.

8. Rules of Procedure, May 9, 1945, S-0537-0074-02, UN.

9. “Memorandum of the United Nations,” November 13, 1945, S-0930-0005-02, UN.

10. Preparatory Commission of the United Nations, “Revisions of the Report to the Executive Committee from Committee 10 on the Selection of a Seat for Headquarters of the United Nations,” October 2, 1945, S-0924-0002-04, UN.

11. Technical Advisory Committee on Information, “Publicity of Meetings of the Principal Organs. Extracts from the Provisional Rules of Procedure as Adopted by the Executive Committee Prepared by the Secretariat for the Use of Members of the Technical Advisory Committee of Information,” December 9, 1945, S-0930-0002-01, UN.

12. “Summary of Meeting Held to Discuss Photographic and Motion Picture Facilities for the Preparatory Commission and the General Assembly Held at Church House, Westminster,” November 14, 1945, S-0925-0002-13, UN.

13. “Summary of Meeting.”

14. Minutes of a Meeting Held in Central Hall, December 7, 1945, S-0925-0002-13, UN.

15. James B. Reston, “Fifty-One Nations in Search of Unity: Here Is a Picture of UNO at Work,” New York Times, January 27, 1946.

16. Mladen Dolar, A Voice and Nothing More (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 109–10.

17. J. L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words: The William James Lectures Delivered at Harvard University in 1955 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).

18. Notes on Meeting between Mr. Herman and Mr. Monk, December 18, 1945, S-0925-0002-13, UN.

19. Memorandum on the Adaptations to be made in the Central Hall, Westminster, for the First Meeting of the Assembly of the United Nations, S-0925-0002-13, UN.

20. Minutes of Meeting Held in Central Hall, December 22, 1945, S-0925-0002-13, UN.

21. Central Hall: Sound-proofing of Broadcasting Studios, December 12, 1945, S-0925-0002-13, UN.

22. Memorandum of the Meeting in Central Hall, November 30, 1945, S-0925-0002-13, UN.

23. Preparations for the Meeting of the Preparatory Commission, November 8, 1945, S-0539-0002-01, UN.

24. “Conference Planning. Accommodation Requirements for the General Assembly of the United Nations.” April 18, 1946, Box 1, Dudley Papers.

25. Natalie de Blois interviewed by Detlef Mertins, June 17, 2004, Chicago, Natalie de Blois Architectural Collection, Special Collections and University Archives, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

26. Letter from Lloyd B. Herman to Byron F. Wood, June 7, 1946, S-0186-0001-02, UN.

27. Today a lottery to decide which national delegation occupies the front row takes place at the beginning of each session. See Preparatory Commission of the United Nations, Memorandum by the Executive Secretary on Seating Arrangements for the General Assembly, December 17, 1945, S-0924-0004-06, UN.

28. “New World Stage: AS THE U.N. MEETS ON FLUSHING MEADOW,” New York Times, October 27, 1946.

29. Cornelia Epping-Jäger, “Voice Politics: Establishing the ‘Loud/Speaker’ in the Political Communication of National Socialism,” in Media, Culture, and Mediality: New Insights into the Current State of Research, ed. Ludwig Jäger, Erika Linz, and Imela Schneider, trans. Brigitte Pichon and Dorian Rudnytsky (Bielefeld, Germany: Verlag, 2010), 161–85.

30. Cornelia Epping-Jäger, “Hitler’s Voice: The Loudspeaker under National Socialism,” trans. Caroline Bem, Intermédialités: Histoire et théorie des arts, des lettres et des techniques / Intermediality: History and Theory of the Arts, Literature and Technologies 17 (2011): 83–104.

31. Memorandum on the Adaptations to be made in the Central Hall, Westminster, for the First Meeting of the Assembly of the United Nations, S-0925-0002-13, UN.

32. Letter from C. J. Brackenbury to Captain Herman, November 17, 1945, S-0925-0002-13, UN.

33. See Lawrence W. Levine and Cornelia R. Levine, The Fireside Conversations: America Responds to FDR during the Great Depression (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010); “The Fireside Chats: Roosevelt’s Radio Talks,” WHHA (en-US), accessed July 9, 2020, https://www.whitehousehistory.org/the-fireside-chats-roosevelts-radio-talks.

34. For a critical discussion of the X-City project within Zeckendorf’s real estate practices during the period see Sara Stevens, Developing Expertise: Architecture and Real Estate in Metropolitan America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016), 187–205. For an account of the incident, see George A. Dudley, A Workshop for Peace: Designing the United Nations Headquarters (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1994), 21; William Zeckendorf and Edward A. McCreary, Zeckendorf: The Autobiography of William Zeckendorf (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), 68.

35. See Carlotta Darò, “Lines for Listening: On Gustave Lyon’s Geometrical Approach to Acoustics,” The Journal of Architecture 23, no. 6 (2018): 881–902

36. For a thorough examination of the debates around acoustics at the League of Nations competition, see Sabine von Fischer, “Debating Volume: Architectural Versus Electrical Amplification in the League of Nations, 1926–28,” The Journal of Architecture 23, no. 6 (2018): 904–35.

37. George Dudley, Design Meeting, March 19, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

38. George Dudley, Design Meeting, March 24, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers; and Max Abramovitz, Meeting Minutes, April 25, 1947, Box 15, Folder 6, Max Abramovitz Papers, Avery.

39. Conference Planning, “Accommodation Requirements for the General Assembly of the United Nations,” April 18, 1946, Box 1, Dudley Papers.

40. Letter from Guy R. Fountain to Joe Lopez, July 19, 1951, S-0441-0138-11, UN.

41. “House of Commons Sound System: Low-Intensity Reinforcing Installation in the New Chamber,” Reprint from Wireless World (Overseas Section), April 1951, S-0441-0138-11, UN.

42. “House of Commons Sound System.”

43. “Sound Reinforcement: New Tannoy Installation at Church House, Westminster, Gives Comprehensive Facilities, Including Foreign Language Interpretation,” reprint from The Wireless & Electrical Trader, November 23, 1950, S-0441-0138-11, UN.

44. Dominic Pettman, Sonic Intimacy: Voice, Species, Technics (or, How to Listen to the World) (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2017), 79–84.

45. Letter from Ernest Weissmann to Wallace K. Harrison, February 11, 1947, Box 02, B01–036.1, Weissmann Papers.

46. Le Corbusier, Le Carnet de Poche de l’O.N.U, Fondation Le Corbusier, Paris: “It is important that the Councils take their decision before the eyes of public opinion.” See Design Meeting, February 28, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

47. “The Eyes of the World. Paramount News Reel Cameraman in Every Country,” Northern Territory Times, December 18, 1928.

48. Design Meeting, February 26, 1947, Box 10, Dudley Papers.

49. Meeting Official Communication Requirements and Space for Radio, Sound Control, Films and Television, June 14, 1948, S-0542–0045-Meetings Sound Control, UN.

50. United Nations Headquarters Planning Office, Meeting, Department of Public Information, July 20, 1948, S-0542–0045-Meetings Sound Control, UN.

51. Le Corbusier, “Tic-Tac á l’horloge des Nations Unies,” n.d., D1-20-137-151, Fondation Le Corbusier.

52. “IBM World Service,” The Binghamton Sun, September 18, 1947, Box 2, Folder 1, IBM Archives.

53. Minutes of Meeting #6, October 27, 1949, S-0542–0045-Meetings Electronic Installations, Telecommunications, UN.

54. A. C. Holt to G. S. Blackwell, “IBM Simultaneous Interpretation Equipment,” August 8, 1961, United Nations, Box 1, Folder 11, IBM Archives.

55. D.D.J., “Notes,” May 23, 1951, S-0441-0138-11, UN.

56. For his acceptance of the offer see letter from Vern O. Knudsen to Harmon H. Goldstone, February 23, 1948, Box 53, Folder 7, Vern O. Knudsen Papers (Knudsen Papers), University of California, Los Angeles.

57. Vern O. Knudsen, interview by Leo Delsasso and W. J. King, May 18, 1964, https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4713; Vern O. Knudsen, “The Hearing of Speech in Auditoriums,” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1, no. 1 (1929): 56–82.

58. Letter from Vern O. Knudsen to Glenn E. Bennett, January 10, 1949, Box 53, Folder 7, Knudsen Papers.

59. On the decision to hire Richard Bolt and have Knudsen serve as an external consultant, see letter from Vern O. Knudsen to Wallace K. Harrison, May 21, 1948, Box 53, Folder 7, Knudsen Papers. In his autobiography, Beranek claims that Knudsen’s bid was higher than Bolt’s, resulting in Bolt winning the commission. See Leo L. Beranek, Riding the Waves: A Life in Sound, Science, and Industry (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2008), 105.

60. President’s Report, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Bulletin 83, No. 1 (October 1947): 153; and Beranek, Riding the Waves, 75–78.

61. Leo L. Beranek, interview by Jack Purcell, February 26, 1989, https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/5191, Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, Maryland.

62. Leo L. Beranek, “BBN’s Earliest Days: Founding a Culture of Engineering Creativity,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 27, no. 2 (2005): 6–14.

63. For The Committee on Soundproofing Aircrafts see letter from Thomas K. Sherwood to Dr. Karl T. Compton, October 1, 1940, Papers of Stanley Smith Stevens (Stevens Papers) 1906–1973, HUGFP 2.14, Box 1, Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, Massachusetts. See also Irvin Stewart, Organizing Scientific Research for War: The Administrative History of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1948), 12.

64. See Beranek’s 1960 compilation of correspondence in letter from Leo L. Beranek to S. S. Stevens, December 5, 1960, HUGFP 2.14, Box 1, Stevens Papers. See also official accounts: Stewart, Organizing Scientific Research, 6, 54–57; James Phinney Baxter, Scientists Against Time (Boston: Little, Brown, 1947), 188–89; Office of Scientific Research and Development, Sciences in World War II: Applied Physics, Electronics, Optics, Metallurgy, ed. Guy Suits et al. (Boston: Little Brown, 1948), 277–89.

65. Geraldine Stone and Harvard University Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory, Final Report (Cambridge: Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory Harvard University, 1961); and Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996), 209–37.

66. Letter from Philip M. Morse to Vannevar Bush, December 11, 1940, UAV 713.9021. Box 2, [17.3 c-5 Sound Sources], Records of the Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory, 1940-1972, Harvard University Archives. For a story of NDRC and OSRD see Daniel Jo Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 302–23; David Dickson, The New Politics of Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 107–62.

67. Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory and S. S. Stevens, “Project II: The Effects of Noise and Vibration on Psychomotor Efficiency, Report on Present Status,” March 31, 1941, 885.95.5, Box 34, OSRD No. 274, Harvard University Archives.

68. NRC Committee on Sound Control and S. S. Stevens, “Report on 1. The Effects of Noise on Psychomotor Efficiency, II. Noise Reduction in Aircraft as Related to Communication, Annoyance and Aural Injury,” December 1, 1941, UAV 885.95.5, Box 34, OSRD No. 274, Harvard University Archives.

69. Henning Schmidgen, “Camera Silenta: Time Experiments, Media Networks, and the Experience of Organlessness,” in Music, Sound, and the Laboratory from 1750–1980, ed. Alexandra Hui, Julia Kursell, and Myles W. Jackson, special issue, Osiris 28 (2013): 162–88.

70. Leo L. Beranek and Harvey P. Sleeper, “The Design and Construction of Anechoic Sound Chambers,” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 18, no. 1 (July 1946): 140–50.

71. E. H. Bedell, “Some Data on a Room Designed for Free Field Measurements,” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 8, no. 2 (October 1936): 118–25.

72. OSRD and NDRC, “The Design and Construction of Anechoic Sound Chambers,” Report of October 15, 1945, p. 4, World War II Government Contract Records: Contracts, Technical Reports, and Other Records, 1941-1947, UAV 885.95.5, Box 43, OSRD No. 4190, Harvard University Archives.

73. Beranek and Sleeper, “The Design and Construction of Anechoic Sound Chambers.”

74. Gilbert Houle, “Acoustic Shock Not Unknown to Humans, Say Professors, Who Cite People Knocked Cold by Loud Clicking of Phone,” Boston Sunday Post, September 15, 1946.

75. Beranek and Sleeper, “The Design and Construction of Anechoic Sound Chambers.”

76. Richard Bolt, “Outline of Acoustics Problems for United Nations Headquarters,” May 19, 1948, S-0472-0032-02, UN; and Richard Bolt, “Memorandum,” July 26, 1948, S-0472-0032-02, UN.

77. Richard H. Bolt and Hamon H. Goldstone, Meeting on Acoustical Problems, May 10, 1948, S-0542–0045-Meetings Acoustics, UN.

78. Interview with Dr. Leo Beranek by Jack Purcell, Los Angeles, California, February 26, 1989, Niels Bohr Library & Archives.

79. Interview with Dr. Leo Beranek.

80. Joseph M. Siry, Air-Conditioning in Modern American Architecture, 1890–1970 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2021), 71–80.

81. Bolt and Beranek, “Acoustics Memorandum for the United Nations Headquarters Planning Office: Noise Measurements on Caldwell and Associates Air Conditioning System in General Motors Laboratories Mock-up, Detroit,” September 26, 1949, S-0472-0032-01, UN; Bolt and Beranek, “Acoustics Memorandum for the United Nations Headquarters Planning Office: Noise Measurements on Caldwell and Associates Ventilating System Sears Roebuck and Company, Union City, New Jersey,” October 18, 1949, S-0472-0032-01, UN.

82. Letter from Paul Bohanon to Richard H. Bolt, December 1, 1950, S-0472-0032-03, UN; Bolt and Beranek, “Acoustics Memorandum for the United Nations Headquarters: Ventilating Problems, General Assembly,” December 18, 1950, S-0472-0032-01, UN.

83. Bolt and Beranek, “Acoustics Memorandum for the United Nations Headquarters,” January 29, 1951, S-0472-0032-01, UN.

84. Bolt and Beranek, “Acoustics Memorandum for the United Nations Headquarters,” June 23, 1949; and “Acoustics Memorandum for the United Nations Headquarters: Recommendations and Comments on,” June 23, 1950, S-0472-0032-01, UN; and letter from Michael H. Harris to Richard H. Bolt, June 16, 1950, S-0472-0032-03, UN.

85. Letter from Michael H. Harris to Richard H. Bolt, June 16, 1950, S-0472-0032-03, UN.

86. Richard H. Bolt, Leo L. Beranek, and Robert B. Newman, “Acoustics Recommendations for the United Nations Permanent Headquarters,” October 15, 1948, Box 53, Folder 7, Knudsen Papers.

87. Richard H. Bolt, Leo L. Beranek, and Robert B. Newman, “Acoustics Recommendations for the United Nations Permanent Headquarters,” October 15, 1948, Box 53, Folder 7, Knudsen Papers.

88. Letter from V. Glicher (Syska & Hennessy) to H. A. VanName, October 18, 1949, S-0472-0030-07, UN.

89. Memorandum, June 23, 1950, S-0472-0032-03, UN.

90. Bolt and Beranek, “Acoustics Memorandum for the United Nations Headquarters: Public Address System for the General Assembly,” November 21, 1950, S-0472-0032-01, UN.

91. Letter from Bolt, Beranek and Newman to Paul Bohanon, December 19, 1951, S-0472-0032-01, UN.

92. Among the different spellings of the name (Adrian, Adriaan, Adrianus), I will be using Adriaan. For a schematic overview of his career at the League, see “Adrianus Pelt,” LONSEA—League of Nations Search Engine, accessed July 29, 2020, http://www.lonsea.de/pub/person/4968.

93. “Suggestions by A. Pelt for the Organization of a Secretariat Information Section,” in James Eric Drummond et al., The International Secretariat of the Future: Lessons from Experience by a Group of Former Officials of the League of Nations (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1944), 61–64.

94. “Annex I. Recommendations of the Technical Advisory Committee on Information concerning the Policies, Functions and Organization of the Department of Public Information,” adopted in A/64, Resolutions Adopted by the General Assembly during the First Part of its First Session from 10 January to 14 February, 1946, UN, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/209582.

95. Barbara Crossette, “Media,” in The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations, ed. Thomas G. Weiss and Sam Daws (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 370–80.

96. Robert H. Cory, “Forging a Public Information Policy for the United Nations,” International Organization 7, no. 2 (May 1953): 232.

97. Benjamin Cohen, “The U.N.’s Department of Public Information,” The Public Opinion Quarterly 10, no. 2 (1946): 151.

98. Cohen, “The U.N.’s Department of Public Information,” 145–55.

99. Information centers were established at the host country’s invitation. See Marcial Tamayo, “The United Nations: A Rich Source of Information,” in The Diplomatic Persuaders: New Role of the Mass Media in International Relations, ed. John Lee (New York: Wiley, 1968), 190–91.

100. Milan Zivanovic, “United Nations Broadcasting: Its Origins, Principles, and Their Implementation” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin, 1972), 87.

101. Cohen, “The U.N.’s Department of Public Information,” 148.

102. “Gijsbert Frans van Dissel,” LONSEA—League of Nations Search Engine, accessed July 27, 2020, http://www.lonsea.de/pub/person/5449.

103. Draft of Van Dissel, “Possible Sites for the Future Radio Stations of the United Nations,” August 20, 1946, S-0532-0009-11, UN. For his role within the Headquarters Commission see “Staff of the Headquarters Commission,” S-0532-0012-01, UN.

104. Committee to assist the Secretary-General in negotiations with the United States Government regarding the arrangements necessary as a result of the establishment of the seat of the United Nations in the United States of America, Seventh Meeting, May 24, 1946. D1–17, Fondation Le Corbusier.

105. Zivanovic, “United Nations Broadcasting,” 20–21.

106. Telecommunications Coordinating Committee, Minutes of Tenth Meeting of Telecommunications Coordinating Committee, June 19, 1946. D1–16, 271–280, Fondation Le Corbusier.

107. Premiere séance du comite interdepartemental charge d’etudier les besoins des Nations Unies en radio-communications, Septembre 6, 1946, S-0916-0002-15, UN.

108. Broadcasting Arrangements for Meetings of the Preparatory Commission and General Assembly of the United Nations, November 19, 1945, S-0539-0008-35, UN.

109. For the growth of the BBC World Service, see Alban Webb, London Calling: Britain, the BBC World Service, and the Cold War (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 13–25.

110. For an examination of the development of the BBC World Service and its ties to the Empire Broadcast Service see Marie Gillespie and Alban Webb, “Corporate Cosmopolitanism: Diasporas and Diplomacy at the BBC World Service, 1932–2012,” in Diasporas and Diplomacy: Cosmopolitan Contact Zones at the BBC World Service (1932–2012), ed. Marie Gillespie and Alban Webb (London: Routledge, 2013), 1–20; Gordon Johnston and Emma Robertson, BBC World Service: Overseas Broadcasting, 1932–2018 (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2019), 1–22.

111. Broadcasting Arrangements for Meetings of the Preparatory Commission and General Assembly of the United Nations, November 19, 1945, S-0539-0008-35, UN.

112. For an argument that international media experienced a post–World War II expansion see Jonas Brendebach, Martin Herzer, and Heidi Tworek, “Introduction,” in International Organizations and the Media in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Exorbitant Expectations, ed. Jonas Brendebach, Martin Herzer, and Heidi J. S. Tworek (London: Routledge, 2018), 1–16.

113. Glenda Sluga, “Hollywood, the United Nations, and the Long History of Film Communicating Internationalism,” in Brendebach, Herzer, and Tworek, International Organizations and the Media in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, 138–57.

114. Meyer Berger, “EVERYTHING READY FOR TODAY’S EVENT: Engineers Solve a ‘Dead Spot’ Problem—Clean-Up Squad Harvests Toadstools,” New York Times, October 23, 1946.

115. Doron Galili, Seeing by Electricity: The Emergence of Television, 1878–1939 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2020), 105–44.

116. Overseas Services Section, “Activities of the Department of Public Information from 23rd to the 27th of September, Weekly News Letter to Field Information Offices Overseas,” from Mr. Hanson to Mr. Sharpley, S-0925-0001-08, UN.

117. See, for example, Walter Goodesmith, “Broadcasting House: Technical Design,” The Architectural Review (1932): 73–78; V. H. Goldsmith, “The Studio Interiors,” The Architectural Review (1932): 53–64; Leo L. Beranek, “Developments in Studio Design,” Proceedings of the IRE 38, no. 5 (May 1950): 470–44; Carson & Lundin Architects, “Broacasting Studio: A Novel Acoustical Treatment Developed for NBC,” The Architectural Forum (February 1946): 98–100; Robert M. Morris and George Nixon, “NBC Studio Design,” JASA 8, no. 2 (1936): 81–90; and A. Warren Canney, “Sound Control and Air Conditioning in the N.B.C. Radio City Broadcasting Studios,” Architectural Record 75, no. 1 (January 1934): 73–92.

118. Shundana Yusaf, Broadcasting Buildings: Architecture on the Wireless, 1927–1945 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2014).

119. Canney, “Sound Control and Air Conditioning in the N.B.C. Radio City Broadcasting Studios”; Robert M. Morris and George M. Nixon, “NBC Studio Design,” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 8, no. 1 (1936): 68–69.

120. Emily Ann Thompson, The Soundscape of Modernity: Architectural Acoustics and the Culture of Listening in America, 1900–1933 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002), 263–93, 301–6.

121. From V. J. Gilcher to E. A. Van Name, March 22, 1949, S-0472-0030-03, UN.

122. Overseas Services Section, “Activities of the Department of Public Information from the 6th to the 12th September, Weekly News Letter to Information Offices Overseas,” from Mr. Tanser to Mr. Sharpley, S-0925-0001-08, UN.

123. Preliminary Summary of Considerations Affecting Planning of United Nations Headquarters, March 28, 1947, 001-2011-361 T, Ernest Cormier fonds, CCA.

124. Headquarters Planning Office, “Investigation of Space Requirements,” July 24, 1947. 001-2011-361 T, Box 2, Ernest Cormier fonds, CCA.

125. For an in-depth discussion of the architecture and technology of film studios, see Brian R. Jacobson, Studios Before the System: Architecture, Technology, and the Emergence of Cinematic Space (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015), 23–55.

126. Cory, “Forging a Public Information Policy for the United Nations.”

127. Richard N. Swift, “The United Nations and Its Public,” International Organization 14, no. 1 (1960): 73–74.

128. Especially in relationship to the television question, they recommended that the UN continue to study the creation of new television and studio infrastructure. See Swift, “The United Nations and Its Public,” 71.

129. Tamayo, “The United Nations,” 189.

130. United Nations Department of Public Information, Your United Nations (New York: Department of Public Information, 1952), 9.

131. Walter J. Duschinsky, TV Stations: A Guide for Architects, Engineers, and Management (New York: Reinhold, 1954), 7.

132. Duschinsky, TV Stations, 11 and 27.

133. Karl W. Deutsch, The Nerves of Government: Models of Political Communication and Control (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963), 182.

134. Deutsch, The Nerves of Government, 75–76.